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Is There a Future for the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Industry on the Prairies?
Herbs for Your Health
Herbs, Homeopathy and Health
Trends in the Production and Marketing of Medicinal Plants in North America
Terry Willard, Ph.D, President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
There are many more patients using unconventional therapy than most people think. In 1991, one in three (34%) of the adult population in the United States went to some form of unconventional therapy:
| Conventional: | 388 million visits |
| Unconventional: | 425 million visits |
(New England Journal of Medicine, January 28, 1993, p. 246) |
A poll done by CNN/New York Times (January 5, 1993) shows the following:
| Questions | % Yes |
| Should MD's be open to alternatives? | 81.5% |
| Can diet prevent certain ailments? | 89.5% |
| Have you shopped in a health food store? | 42.0% |
| Would you consider an alternative practitioner if conventional medicine failed? | 62.0% |
| Have you tried unconventional therapies? | 30.0% |
| Would you go back to an alternative healer? | 84.0% |
Historically, we find heroic medicine with antibiotics, advanced diagnostic techniques, strong pharmaceutical, and advanced medical appliances, all of which we have come to appreciate to service our emergency health care needs.
Natural Healers were suppressed and ignored in the Western world for a short period of time (1946-1975). It can be seen as an interface between the natural & vibrational world and the social fabric. Due to this, herbalists have had the role of balancing on one side the need for a clean environment and on the other side to deal with human suffering. Some see this as a path of connecting the planet (Gaia Mother) to people.
In the past we can see allopathic medicine as hierarchical with: Academics/Politicians, Hospitals, Specialists, GPs, rural doctors, nurses and other health care providers as the flow of command and medical information. In present times many people are more educated and seek information as a fluid network. This gives them a desire to own their own body, not always deferring responsibility to other people. With an intelligent population base having access to CAN, mass media, and the Information Highway, we are seeing a change in how people perceive health care.
If you wear out your body, then where are you going to live?
As we crush time and space in our everyday lives, intelligent people use practitioners and counsellors as part of their information net. They often consult with body workers, acupuncturists, etc. as treatment modalities for a tuneup. They go to workshops to aid in tuning their perception. They put more emphasis on food, herbs and rituals to help them connect with the planet (Gaia nature).
Size of the Herbal Industry
No one knows for sure the size of the industry, because there are so many sectors to consider; Estimates run from 1 - 10 billion US dollars annually in North America. We know that some companies are doing more than 750 million annually in North America. We know that some companies are doing more than 750 million annually themselves and herbal cough drop doing 1.1 billion alone. German pharmacies sold more than two billion last year. This leaves the worldestimates to be in the trillions.
Where do Herbs Grow?
The largest growing areas in North America are the Oregon/Washington Coast and the US North East. Other areas around the world include Northern Europe, the Chinese Mountains and Northern provinces. It is interesting to find that the rough environments are most suitable for growing the strongest medicinal herbs: eg. root crops need little irrigation; colder temperatures often produce higher chemical' yield. The prairie provinces are very suitable for growing many medicinal plants such as: Echinacea, Astragalus, Mints, Valerian, Feverfew, oil-producing plants, possibly Goldenseal, Uva Ursi and a multitude of wild plants.
Specialty can really add to saleability and price of a crop. Niches like organic, stronger biotype, and guaranteed potency are all worth considering.
Value Added Production
Organic brings higher prices and acceptance. Organic herbs are usually valued at twice the price as non-organic. Presently demand heavily out-strides production, eg. Echinacea crops now being purchased for the 1998 season. Trend toward Guaranteed Potency where the buyer is looking for botanicals with above specific amounts of marker chemicals, eg., Echinacea with 4% total Phenolic Compounds and 15% polysaccharides. Testing should be done by independent labs.
Value Added Product
By processing the herb, higher prices can be obtained. Processing can include cutting/sifted, or grinding, tinctures, ointments, tea blends, potpourri's, aromatic oils. The most important rule is: don't put all you eggs in one basket. You should split the production between several short term and long term botanicals: eg. root crops are a 3-5 year investment, some leaf herbs are annuals. Split sales niches, eg., 25% value-added, 25% small quantities, and 50% bulk. Move into the area slowly with lots of crop testing, to know your plant for your land. Herb farming is really intensive gardening even though it can be quite mechanized.
Trends in Marketing
- Farmers group together into "co-ops"
- Attached to a label (to pre-sell crop)
- Specialty micro brewer' type operation
The Future Looks Quite Good
No one knows the future, but the herbal industry is on a power curve upward. The size of the market is continually doubling. The Prairie Provinces are in the perfect position to be the Medicine Cabinet for the world.
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Manitoba: Trends in Industry Development
Jack Moes Ph.D., P.Ag., New Crop Agronomist
Crop Development Section - Manitoba Agriculture
Brandon, Manitoba
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
How quickly things change. With the loss of the Crow benefit last summer, many of us would have predicted a very intense interest in the alternatives to wheat. Well, wheat is up, and the interest in oilseed and special crops is down. Even so, there are a few who are intensely interested in some of the crops we are gathered here to discuss. I'll give you an overview of what is currently happening in Manitoba in regards to aromatic and medicinal plants.
Spice Crops
Caraway. Caraway seed is used in baking, cheeses, and other foods. Most years there will be a few thousand acres of production on the Prairies, between 1,000 and 2,000 in Manitoba. Contracts to grow caraway seed are typically difficult to find, but right now a processor in Western Manitoba is actively soliciting growers for caraway seed--this is literally an unheard of situation. Caraway is a biennial species, meaning it doesn't set seed until its second year. It is often sown with a nurse crop to provide a harvest of something in the establishment year. By late June in the second season, the crop is generally well into flowering, and by early August it is typically ready for harvest.
Coriander. Like caraway, there have typically been 1,000 and 2,000 acres of coriander in Manitoba. Coriander is a favoured nurse crop for caraway. While the pricing is not nearly as attractive as caraway, the caraway processor I spoke of is offering to take coriander from those growers who wish to use it as a nurse crop. We have attempted to grow coriander under zero-tillage, with good success. One of the main limitations is that the only broad spectrum herbicide registered for coriander and caraway is Edge (ethyl fluralin), technically a preplant incorporated herbicide. However, zero-tillers in Manitoba have been experimenting with surface-applied (non-incorporated) Edge in other crops, with favourable results. I expect that some experimentation with surface-applied Edge in caraway and coriander will be taking place in due course.
Fenugreek. Here's something relatively new to the Prairies--Fenugreek is used as a component of curry powders. Although we seem to be able to grow it quite well, the market opportunity for Prairie fenugreek production appears to be small, and we have had no commercial production attempts in Manitoba--I keep hoping that some processor will exploit some of the non-spice potential of fenugreek--extracting its dietary fibre and other components.
Cumin. Cumin seed has not yet been grown commercially in Canada, but appears to have some potential. It is used for flavouring meats and stews, and like coriander and fenugreek, is a component of curry powder. It looks like there is good demand for cumin seed, and the price seems favourable, too. However, the plants are small, leading to a challenging (potentially frustrating?) harvest; and good stands have been difficult to obtain. Also, flowers are sensitive to high temperature, resulting in poor seed set. So the real potential of this as a new crop for Manitoba is still unknown.
Medicinal/Aromatic Herbs
Now we are in for something completely different. The crops we have talked about so far are grown on a scale of quarter sections and not quarter acres, using the typical line of full-sized tractors, seeders, sprayers, swathers, and combines. The crops we are going to talk about next require a bit of a paradigm shift--different production, different scale, different management, and different marketing. In fact, it's helpful to have an attitude like the one expressed on my friend's hat: "Of all the things I've lost, I miss my mind the most." If this is how your neighbours regard you, you are probably on the leading edge of innovation.
Essential Oil Crops. Sometimes mints are grown for their leaves, but what gives the leaves their flavour is the essential oils contained in the plant tissue. There are a number of species that are grown for extraction of these essential oils, including mint and dill for flavouring oils, and monarda and lavender for fragrant oils. There is commercial mint production on the Prairies.
These crops are typically cut with a mower, then chopped into wagons using a forage harvester. Now these are not your ordinary forage wagons - these are called distillation wagons, and when they are full, they are hauled to a distillation plant, sealed up, and connected to a source of steam. The steam releases the oil from the plant tissue and carries the oil out of a collector. All this happens on the farm--it's the oil that is sold off the farm. As you can imagine, there is a rather high capital investment required to set up this kind of operation, and a characteristic of essential oil markets is that prices are very volatile--not for the faint-hearted! There is no commercial mint production in Manitoba (that I know of)--but in one attempt to establish mint, the result was winterkill. This patch had poor snowcover, and all the rootstocks were killed. The would-be grower was lucky and had not yet invested in any distillation apparatus, so the learning experience was relatively inexpensive. Overwintering is not impossible mind you--it is necessary to take care in field selection, mulching, and prefreeze up irrigation, if available.
A number of years ago, there was an attempt made to establish a distillation facility in south central Manitoba to extract dill oil from the plant tissue. The effort went bust due to low dill oil prices just when production came on line. One of the characteristics of essential oil markets is price volatility. It seems to me that it might be prudent to set up distillation plants on the basis of perhaps two or three or more essential oil crops rather than just one.
Ginseng. The mystical ginseng root. Used for millennia by the Chinese as a medicinal and all-round feel-good substance--today there is growing clinical support for some of the traditional claims. At $35 - $50/lb for dried root, this seems like a very lucrative crop, and it has been grown successfully in Manitoba--though I should tell you that up until a few years ago, the so-called "experts" would have insisted it couldn't be done--but it is not for the faint of heart. An acre of ginseng might gross $80,000 to $100,000, but it will take a great deal of management attention and labour, and that acre will take a good $40,000 in expenses by the time it is harvested. Seed is very expensive, the plant is a shady-forest species so it needs to be shaded by a structure. Weed control is largely by hoeing and pulling, and multiple sprayings are required to keep diseases in check. While there have been many inquiries, there hasn't been a huge increase in the number of commercial scale growers in Manitoba. Our first grower's experience was encouraging enough to him that he has sown more, this time under polypropylene shadecloth instead of wood lath. I have also dealt with a couple of people interested in the possibility of reducing the cost of production (but also the per acre yield) by growing ginseng under the shade of a shelterbelt. I have not heard about anyone successfully following through on this.
Echinacea. Echinacea angustafolia, or Purple Coneflower is native to the southern Prairies. The medicinal properties of Echinacea have been utilized historically by natives and pioneers used to treat everything from snakebite to saddle sores, but recently there has been clinical evidence to show Echinacea can stimulate the immune system. This is driving increased interest in Europe and North America. It takes at least three years to achieve a marketable sized root, and cultivation has several challenges--like sourcing seed, getting it established, and marketing it. But there is growing interest in the possibilities of cultivating this herb.
Typical of many native species, Echinacea seed has a high level of dormancy, and establishment for cultivation purposes typically involves both stratification and establishing seedlings in pots or flats, then transplanting successfully established seedlings. Stratification is accomplished by storing the seeds in moist soil at 4°-5°C for a month or two. We made the inadvertent discovery that by leaving the seed in the stratification medium (moist soil) in a warm environment for 24 hours or so, to pre-germinate, we could then sow the seed directly in the field and achieve a high level of establishment.
Senega root. I regularly get inquiries about the possibility of cultivating Senega Root--for which we have a long history of wildcrafting in Manitoba. I know little about this, but Dr. Norm Kenkel and a graduate student in the Department of Botany at the University of Manitoba have been examining the ecology of Senega root, and have worked out a technique involving both stratification and scarification to achieve a high level of germination. The next step hopefully is to attempt to establish it in the field, though they have not yet been able to pursue this.
Borage. As a fresh salad herb young borage leaves are known for their cucumber-like flavour. But a different interest in borage has sprung up in recent years, with the discovery that the oil in borage seed is high in a compound called gamma-linolenic acid, or GLA for short. This oil has a recognized medicinal value for people suffering from aliments such as diabetes, stress, aging, and PMS. A company in Saskatoon extracts borage oil and contracts up to about 3,000 acres of production annually, some of which is in Manitoba. Contracts are apparently hard to get, but obligatory if you want to market your crop.
Besides marketing, the other big challenge in growing borage for seed is that it starts flowering in July and doesn't quit until you swath it. If the seeds would just stay put, no problem. But they don't--as soon as a seed is mature, it becomes very prone to dropping off the plant. In practice, it is difficult to harvest more than about 20-30% of the seed that is there. This has some people dreaming of giant vacuum cleaners to harvest in several passes, before the seeds actually drop.
Hemp. While we are on the subject of gamma linolenic acid, I'd like to mention hemp. There's been an incredible amount of hype and interest in hemp in the last year or so. We had an opportunity last season to begin evaluating hemp to see if the hype has any substance to it. The main claim to fame of the hemp plant is the fibre in the stalk. The stem in cross-section shows a green "bark" containing very long, strong fibres. These are the fibres that have been used for untold centuries to make clothing, rope, twine, and paper. The whitish core, called "hurds" is very light and corky, but contains some very short fibres.
Hemp seed is actually a good source of oil that has been used historically for applications like paints and varnishes, as well as for edible purposes. We have had some of our hemp seed evaluated for the quality of its oil and here are the highlights:
- High in gamma-linolenic acid--at 2-3%, high compared with seed oils typically--also high in linolenic acid--about 50-55%;
- High in tocopherols, natural antioxidants which not only counter the instability of oil high in polyunsaturates, also recognized as nutritionally valuable in their own right;
- Relatively high in sterols (though not unusually so compared with other plant oils) sterols block cholesterol absorption--if consistently high, extraction of the sterols as a separate pharmaceutical component could be warranted.
All of these things suggest that hemp seed oil could be a relatively high-value specialty oil.
Horseradish. A Winnipeg company contracts a small but growing acreage for the purpose of extracting a high-value minor component: horseradish peroxidase, used in medical and scientific test kits. I think this is an interesting model to exploit for other crops--extracting higher value components to add value.
Herbs. While commercial culinary herb production is very small in Manitoba, a couple of interesting initiatives include a cooperative herb growers group that is trying to identify good commercial opportunities from among the more than one hundred herbs in their collective experience, and a greenhouse enterprise growing fresh herbs for restaurants in Winnipeg.
Garlic. You may not readily think of garlic as a herb, but it certainly is...an aromatic plant which makes for aromatic people! --with both culinary and medicinal applications. There are several growers in Manitoba experimenting with suitable planting material and methods.
Peppers. Chili peppers. Spice? Herb? Vegetable? Does it matter? Market opportunity exists for Manitoba grown hot peppers, which must be sown indoors and transplanted out in spring, and there is some serious interest in commercial scale production.
Irrigated Production Possibilities. Finally, while it is mostly potatoes and some vegetables that are under Manitoba's irrigation rigs, there is considerable interest in identifying alternatives for irrigated production, which may include herbs--both medicinal and culinary--and other aromatic plants. Considerable energy is being spent in this effort, particularly with the leadership of staff at the Manitoba Crop Diversification Centre.
Although aromatic and medicinal plants are not new to Manitoba, an aromatic and medicinal plants industry is really in its infancy. However, interest is taking off and some innovative enterprises are underway.
Herb Research and Industry Development in Saskatchewan
Dr. Branka Barl
Herb Research Centre, University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
A recent resurgence of interest in alternative health care and natural products medicine has resulted in an increased market demand for medicinal herbs around the globe, and particularly in North America. The growth of North American medicinal herb industry has been conservatively estimated at 12% (Grunwals, 1995), 8% in Canada (Mater Engineering, Ltd. 1993). Herbs in variety of forms (teas, tinctures, tablets, capsules, ointments) became widely available commercially as over-the-counter pharmaceutical products and/or dietary supplements. Its annual sale on the world market reached more than $4 billion. Some of the most widely used herbs in Europe and North America are: Echinacea (Echinacea spp.), for enhancement of the general immune system and prevention of colds and flu; milk thistle (Sylibum marianum) for protection of the liver from dietary and environmental toxins; gingko (Ginkgo biloba) for improvement of the peripheral blood circulation important to elderly; garlic (Allium sativum) and ginkgo for reduction of risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease.
Demand for herbs and herb derived products for variety of other applications other than phytomedicinals, such as food flavourings, cosmetic and personal hygiene products (in fragrances, creams, lotions), industrial chemicals (insecticides, specialty lubricants), feed ingredients, etc., is also on the rise. As a result of such market trends it became rather obvious that herbs deserve serious consideration as potential alternative cash crops for Saskatchewan.
From a production standpoint it is important to make distinction between herbs and spices. Spices are grown on large acreage with use of farm equipment typically applied in production of grain and oilseed crops; they are commonly grown for seeds. Herb production, however, requires much hand labour and specialized equipment. It has been estimated that hand labour accounts for 50% of the total production and marketing cost of herbs. As a result, herbs are usually produced on small scale and harvested for leaf, root, or flower; rarely for the seed.
In Saskatchewan spice production and research started about six years ago while herb research was initiated over the last three years in response to industry development. It is needless to say that at the present time, many questions ranging from herb production to marketing oriented ones, still remain to be answered. The latest information on herb and spice production in Saskatchewan, as per the two following tables, indicated that acreage under spices is about five times higher from the acreage under herbs. Main herb crops are mint and borage. Scotch spearmint, an aromatic plant used as a source of essential oil widely applied in food and cosmetic industry, was first grown in Outlook area under irrigation in 1994. Borage was introduced four years ago as a source of seed oil rich in gamma-linolenic acid; it is being market by the Bioriginal Food and Science Corp. as a dietary supplement. Borage is well adapted to prairie conditions. Despite the fact that only 30 - 40% of the seeds can be harvested with the existing harvesting equipment, borage is considered an attractive and profitable medicinal plant.
Table 1: Spice Production in Saskatchewan in 1995*
| Crop | Acreage |
| Coriander | 12400 |
| Caraway | 6700 |
| Dill | 2400 |
| Cumin |  |
* Ray McVicar, personal communication
Table 2: Herb Production in Saskatchewan in 1995*
| Crop | Acreage |
| Borage | 3000 |
| Mint | 1300 |
| Fenugreek | 300 |
| Ginseng | 20 |
| Echinacea | 10 |
Valerian
Yarrow
Milk thistle
Angelica, etc. | |
* Ray McVicar, Doug Elsasser and others, personal communication
Although Saskatchewan is considered as one of the most desirable areas to cultivate medicinal herbs in North America because of the climate, clean environment and wealth of experience in agriculture, commercial production is obviously still minimal. This could be explained partially by the uncertainties over the selection of medicinal herbs to cultivate, and also over competitiveness on the international market.
Growers of herbs and spices in Saskatchewan are organized in the Saskatchewan Herb and Spice Association (SHSA), which had played an important role in having herbs and spices recognized as alternative specialty crops. Over the last four years membership to the SHSA has increased six times; it presently has 240 members. During the same period, more than 10 companies entered the field of processing, and/or production and/or marketing of herbs; e.g., Bioriginal Food and Science Corp. and Fytokem Products Inc. in Saskatoon; Canadian Aromatics Oils in Outlook; Springbank Herb Farm Inc. in Speers; Northern Essentials in Prince Albert; Husband's Food in Wawota; Assiniboia Herb & Spice Co-op in Assiniboia. Two companies, Prairie Plant Systems in Saskatoon and Mircogro International in Biggar, are vegetatively propagating medicinal and aromatic plants. Detailed listing of herb companies in Saskatchewan is provided in Appendix I.
Herb research in Saskatchewan is being carried out at the University of Saskatchewan (U of S) by the Crop Development Centre (CDC), Department of Crop Science and Plant Ecology, and the Saskatchewan Herb Research Centre (SHRC), Department of Horticulture Science. Selected research activities at CDC include: production and quality of selected spice crops (caraway, coriander, dill, cumin and anise); enhancement of seed germination of wild plants in Saskatchewan; adaption of Plantago ovata (psylium) to Saskatchewan.
Applied production oriented research is being conducted at the Saskatchewan Irrigation Development Centre (SIDC) in Outlook (mint and ginseng), and in PFRA Shelterbelt Centre in Indian Head (ginseng). In response to great interest in ginseng production on the prairies, SIDC and PFRA established demonstration plots of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) three and two years ago, respectively. Based on the information generated up to date, it appears possible to grow ginseng in Saskatchewan; however, economic feasibility has not yet been established. Problems with ginseng production are: the risk of overwintering, establishment of market channels, high investment cost, and the rapid expansion of ginseng production in Ontario and British Columbia (Clark, 1993). Numerous short-term projects with narrower scope are also being conducted by individual growers.
There are several companies in Saskatchewan presently conducting medicinal and aromatic plants related research. Bioriginal Food & Science Corp. is a processor and marketer of value-added, plant-based products for the health and nutritional market. Their main product lines are high-potency GLA preparations and extensive line of essential fatty acid oils. Bioriginal is constantly exploring new plant-based products with nutritional and/or medicinal properties. Fytokem Products Inc. focuses its efforts on production of phytochemicals or plant extracts with therapeutic, cosmetic or nutritional properties, and on sale of wide range of fine phytochemicals suitable for research purposes. New Leaf Biotechnology Inc. is involved in in vitro production of plant cell cultures, which are to be used as a source of natural products; the main line of activities is directed into in vitro production of sanguinirines.
Being in charge for the SHRC, I am undoubtedly better informed about the SHRC's research activities than those carried out at other research groups in Saskatchewan. For this sole reason I am in position to offer more specific information on our own research projects. Main activities include:
- development of information pertinent to production, quality, processing, and marketing of herbs of economic importance to Saskatchewan and transferring that information to the herb industry. This activity is aimed at assisting establishment and growth of the herb industry in the province. We have developed a publication entitled Saskatchewan Herb Database which contains information on 26 herbs; it is being updated and expanded to include other species with good potential for commercialization.
- quality evaluation of locally grown herbs of commercial importance through chemical f ingerprinting and development of assays that could be used for standardization of botanical extracts. Extensive work on identifying and quantifying mark er compounds in both intact plant parts and in commercial preparations (capsules, tinctures, etc.) of Echinacea, Milk Thistle, Senega root and valerian has been conducted. Numerous essential oil bearing plants, cultivated and wildcrafted in Saskatchewan, have been fingerprinted.
Other activities include: study of several indigenous Saskatchewan plants as potential sources of extracts and natural compounds with immunostimulating activity, use of plant extracts for biological pest control, development of novel herb-based food and feed products aimed at increasing value of raw materials and developing new niche markets. For further inquiries please contact Branka Barl at fax: 306-966-8106, Internet: barlb@duke.usask.ca.
In closing, let me say that the herb and spice industry is an emerging one in Saskatchewan. With the support of the provincial government and the private corporations, the infrastructure for this promising industry is slowly being built. However, more resources and combined efforts in agronomic and phytochemical studies are required. It is particularly true for the successful development of the medicinal plant industry, which depends to a great extent on the quality (concentration of active compounds) and not only on the yield of raw material. This conference may present a good opportunity to consider combining and coordinating research efforts across the prairies to enable faster development of the herb and spice industry in all three prairie provinces.
Appendix I: Herb Companies in Saskatchewan, January 1996
Alpine Health International
Attn: Brad Seward and/or Richard Muth
4910 - 49 Street
Lloydminster, SK S9V 0M3
Tel: 306-825-9849
Fax: 306-825-6555
Assiniboia Extractions Ltd.
P. O. Box 1089
Assiniboia, SK S0H 0B0
Tel/Fax: 306-642-3499
Beld Enterprizes
Attn: Brian Neufeld
Box 1268
Preeceville, SK S0A 3B0
Tel: 306-547-4631
Bioriginal Food & Science Co.
Attn: Rick Kulow
#1-411 Downey Rd.
Saskatoon, SK S7N 4L8
Tel: 306-975-1166
Fax 306-242-3829
Canadian Aromatic Oils Inc.
Attn: J. Blair Miller
1910 - 4th Street East
Saskatoon, SK S7H 0B1
Tel: 306-955-9617
Fax: 306-955-9632
Chartier Greenhouse
Attn: Georgie, Rusty, Michelle
1245 Avenue 0 South
Saskatoon SK S7M 2T5
Tel: 306-242-1171
Dandilee Agro Inc.
Attn: Brian Petracek
Box 74
Gerald, SK S0A 1B0
Tel/Fax: 306-745-2510
Prairie Garlic Growers
Attn: Larry Balion
143 Laurentian Drive
Saskatoon, SK S7H 4R7
Tel: 306-955-7189
Fax: 306-955-2755
Prairie Mountain
Attn: Nora Stewart
Box 273
Arcola, SK S0C 0G0
Tel: 306-455-2513
BRock Haven Industries
Box 911
Assiniboia, SK S0J 0B0
Tel/Fax: 306-642-3485
Fytokem Products Inc.
Attn: Warren Steck
222-111 Research Drive
Saskatoon, SK S7N 3R2
Tel: 306-955-1974
Fax: 306-374-6247
Helga's Herbs
Box 6
Aberdeen, SK S0K 0A0
Tel: 306-253-4781
Husband's Foods
Attn: John &/or Carol Husband
P. O. Box 32
Wawota, SK S0G 5A0
Tel/Fax: 306-739-2900
Microgro International
Attn: Paul Fowler
Box 1090
Biggar, SK S0K 0M0
Tel: 306-948-5480
Fax: 306-948-5481
Mumm's Sprouting Seeds
Hazleridge Farm
Box 268
Shellbrook, SK S0J 2E0
Tel: 306-747-2935
Fax: 306-747-3618
Northern Essentials
Attn: Len Donais
Box 15, 1010 Riverside Drive
Prince Albert, SK S6V 5R5
Tel: 306-764-4499
Fax: 306-763-4344
Parkland Botanicals
Attn: Doug Elsasser
Box 175
Togo, SK S0A 4E0
Tel/Fax: 306-597-2146
Prairie Green Herbs
Attn: Sherry Kalmakoff
Box 1287
Kamsack, SK S0A 1S0
Tel/Fax: 306-542-3334
Prairie Plant Systems Inc.
Attn: Brent Zettl
108-106 Research Drive
Saskatoon, SK S7N 3R3
Tel: 306-975-1207
Fax: 306-975-0440
Springbank Herb Farm Ltd.
P. O. Box 60
Speers, SK S0M 2V0
Tel: 306-246-4712
Fax: 306-246-4600
Appendix II: Herbs of economic importance to Saskatchewan
- Bearberry/Kinnickinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)
- Calamus root (Acorus Calamus)
- Chickweed (Stellaria media)
- Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
- Echinacea (Echinacea angustifolia, E. Purpurea, E. Pallida)
- Elecampane (Inula helenium)
- Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.)
- German chamomile (matricaria chamomilla)
- Ginseng: Oriental (Panax ginseng)
- Ginseng American (P. Quinquefolius)
- Ginseng Siberian (Eleutherococcus senticosus)
- Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)
- Horsetail (Equisetum arvense L.)
- Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra)
- Milk thistle (Silybum marianum)
- Mint (Metna spp.)
- Pitcher plant (Sarracenia spp.)
- Plantain (Plantago spp.)
- Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stalonifera)
- Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis)
- Seneca root (Polygala senega)
- Stemless ladyslipper (Cyprepidium acaule)
- Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica)
- Valerian root (Valeriana officinalis)
- Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
- Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium)
Special Crops Production Trends in Alberta
Dr. Refe Gaudiel, Research Scientist
Crop Diversification Centre South
Brooks, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Crop diversification is one of the major efforts by Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, in its strategy towards sustainable growth of the Agricultural economy. In recent years, the contribution of the "Specialty" or "Alternate" crops to the agricultural industry has been increasing. This is especially true in years when cereal demand and grain prices are low. In recent years, however, there appears to be a realization that these new crops may play an important and more permanent part in a farmer's management scheme. This presentation will look at some of these crops, excluding the pulse crops which have been addressed by the previous speaker, with regard to its adaptability and production potential in Alberta.
Herbs and Spices
This commodity group consists of numerous plant species with a variety of uses and market options. Generally, the demand and consumption of these products have been relatively constant or increasing. The following table shows the U.S. imports of condiments, seasoning and flavoring materials from 1991 to 1994.
U.S. Imports of Condiments, Seasoning, and Flavoring Materials
| 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 |
| Production ( 000 metric tons) |
| Imports | 243 | 254 | 250 | 286 |
| Exports | 37 | 36 | 41 | 51 |
| Value (million $) |
| Imports | 395 | 399 | 373 | 432 |
| Exports | 85 | 88 | 100 | 108 |
The Canadian spice imports in 1993 and 1994 are shown in the following table:
Canadian Imports of Selected Seed Spices
| 1993 | 1994 |
| Spice | (kg) | ( 000 $) | (kg) | ( 000 $) |
Anise seed
Coriander seed
Cumin seed
Caraway seed | 152,000
148,000
340,000
109,000 | 409
257
931
185 | 186,000
96,000
308,000
142,000 | 423
150
716
357 |
Culinary Crops
The culinary herbs are usually sold either in its fresh or dried form. Some culinary crops that can be grown in Alberta are: coriander or cilantro, different types of basil, chives, dill, parsley, oregano, savory, tarragon, thyme, the mints, sweet marjoram, and sage.
Coriander or Cilantro. Both these plants belong to the same species. Coriander, however, is fast bolting, early to mature and produces larger seeds. Cilantro is slow bolting and the whole tops of the young plants are used. Seed production is possible, particularly in the southern part of the province. Weed control is important because of the relatively open canopy of the crop. The cilantro tops are in demand and used in flavoring and garnishing upscale cuisines in recent years. Essential oils may be extracted from the whole cilantro plant. Just like other leafy vegetables, much hand labor is needed to prepare fresh cilantro for market.
Parsley. When grown as an annual crop, it can be grown throughout Alberta. It can be either transplanted or seeded directly to the field. Two distinct types are available - the curled type is usually used fresh in garnishings while the plain leaf type is used to produce the dried parsley flakes sold in stores.
Dill. For culinary purposes, the whole tops of the young plants can be cut and used as garnishing or flavoring. Certain varieties appear to be more bushy and stay longer that way than others. Dill can be grown throughout Alberta. It can be seeded directly in the field. When left in the field, it will tend to reseed itself and could become a weed.
Sweet Marjoram. Can be grown in Alberta as an annual. It will not overwinter. Appears to respond well to transplanting rather than direct seeding. Being a small plant, it is relatively hard to handle mechanically during harvest.
Tarragon. Two types are sold commercially. The French type is preferred over the Russian type. The French type has a better flavor, does not produce any seed, thus can only be propagated by root division or cuttings. It is a winter-hardy perennial that can be grown throughout Alberta. Besides using the leaves of the plant for culinary purposes, essential oil can also be extracted from the whole plant tops.
Oregano. There are various kinds of oregano in the market which include different plant species. The Greek and Mexican types of oregano plants are preferred by the commercial market but are not winter hardy. The common type of oregano, with purple colored flowers, and commonly grown in Alberta, is winter hardy. Unfortunately, this winter-hardy plant does not have satisfactory aroma and flavor.
Sage. This perennial plant can be started from seed sown directly in the field. It is winter hardy, although some winter-kill may occur in some bad years. The broadleaf garden sage commonly used in Alberta is not as aromatic as those grown in the Mediterranean area. Soils with high lime content appear to produce better products. Essential oil can be extracted from this crop and can be managed easily using conventional mechanical equipments.
Chives. This perennial plant can be started from division or from seed sown directly in the field. It is winter hardy throughout Alberta. The tops of the plants can be sold directly as a fresh product or freeze-dried for longer storage life. It is possible to harvest the plants several times during the growing season.
Basil. This annual plant has so many different kinds available in the market. The one commonly used is the sweet basil. Several forms and color of sweet basil types are available. Other types of basil that can be grown are: anise or licorice, lemon, cinnamon, cumin, and spicy. It can be directly seeded in the field. This plant is very susceptible to frost.
Seed Spice Crops
The advantage of spice crops grown for their seed is that ordinary grain equipment can generally be used to produce the crop. It can be grown in large fields without the need for much manual labor. Spice crops that may be grown in Alberta for their seeds are: caraway, coriander, fenugreek, dill, anise, and cumin.
Caraway. Caraway is a biennial crop that can be grown throughout Alberta. A nurse crop is usually planted with caraway during the establishment year in order to obtain some return in the seeded land during the first year. If, however, the caraway crop is set back in growth during the first year by aggressive competition from the nurse crop or poor weather conditions, the caraway plant may flower only in the third or fourth year upon reaching a certain size. Selection of less-shattering varieties is important to minimize yield losses and obtain darker colored mature seeds. Weeds can be controlled with good management practices and available chemical sprays.
Coriander. Coriander is the same plant species as cilantro but the seed is the product harvested. Coriander seeds are larger and the plant is shorter and earlier to mature compared to the cilantro type. It can be planted with ordinary grain drills. It is better adapted to the warmer, longer growing season areas of southern Alberta. The plant does not compete well with weeds because of its open canopy. However, chemical sprays are available for weed control. The western Canadian prairie has become one of the large producers of coriander seed in the world.
Fenugreek. This is a legume plant that can be very indeterminate in its growing habit particularly in an environment of high fertility and moisture. It appears to be best adapted in the brown soil zone of southern Alberta. Perhaps it can be grown in the dark brown soils in stubble and in areas where probability of moisture stress occurs after the pods have started to develop. The market prefers seeds that are well matured with a good yellow color. Damaged or immature seeds turn brown and dark colored.
Dill. Dill can be grown in almost all parts of Alberta. This annual plant can be seeded directly in the field using ordinary grain drills. However, the use of row crop seeders that can seed dill in wide rows will make cultivation and weed control easier. Besides harvesting the seed, the whole plant tops can be harvested for its essential oil. The timing of swathing and threshing the crop, particularly during hot periods, is important because of potential shattering losses. Essential oil can also be extracted from the seed. Generally, the demand and price of dill seed has not been as attractive as the other spice crops.
Anise. This crop can be successfully grown in Alberta but appears to be more adapted to the southern regions where there is a longer growing season. A good plant stand is important particularly because seed viability appears to be generally low. Weed control is a concern because the plants are small and open in canopy and does not compete well with weeds.
Cumin. Although the demand and price of cumin seed appear to be attractive, it is hard to produce this crop. The plants are small and short thus mechanical harvesting can be a problem. The flowers and developing seeds are sensitive to high temperatures and most often results in poor seed set. Perhaps newer plant types and production in the cooler areas of northern Alberta may help alleviate the problem.
Health - Related Crops
There are a number of crops that are being grown and sold for the purpose of improving the human health. Some of the plants that can be grown in Alberta are: borage, mints, echinacea, chamomile and ginseng.
Borage. The seed of the borage plant contains oil that is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which is the main component sought after by the health industry. Borage as an annual can be planted and handled directly in the field with ordinary grain equipment. The primary concern with this crop is seed shattering after the seed reaches maturity; particularly because this plant flowers progressively and indeterminately. Low yields and marketing of this can be a problem. It is adapted to almost all areas of Alberta but northern regions are preferred because of the belief that oil produced in northern areas have higher GLA content.
Mint. Mint leaves are usually marketed and used as teas. Different types of mints are used but peppermint is most common. Peppermint or spearmint plants can be successfully grown throughout Alberta, particularly when the plants are covered in the winter to ensure winter survival. Manual labor may be needed to separate the mint leaves and prepare the product for market.
Echinacea. This plant, native to North America, appears to have a strong demand in recent years for medicinal purposes. There are two main species used. The Echinacea purpurea and the Echinacea angustifolia. The whole tops, but particularly the roots, are the product of commerce. Roots are ready for harvest when they are about three years old. Although seeds can be sown directly in the field, starting the plants in the greenhouse and transplanting them out in the field appear to be more desirable.
Chamomile. The annual variety or German chamomile appears to be the one commonly sold and used. The dried flower is used for teas or extracted for its essential oil. It is adapted to all parts of Alberta and can be started by seed directly in the field. Seeding should be very shallow for successful establishment. The plant will reseed itself and can be a weed problem. Mechanical harvesting of the flowers may be one of the important operations in producing this crop.
Ginseng. The anticipated high return of this crop has sparked lots of interest with potential growers in Alberta. Three or four year old roots are the product of commerce. Adaptability of ginseng is still a concern in Alberta because of our adverse weather conditions. Winter kill of the plants can occur in years with very cold temperatures and little snow cover. Commercial yield levels are not yet established for long-term production. Yields have to be competitive with other ginseng growing areas. Management practices, particularly with application of mulches, fertility practices, plant stand establishment, and disease control may have to be better defined for Alberta. The future market demand and prices are uncertain 4-5 years from now, particularly when cost of establishment of this crop is high. There is, however, cautious optimism that commercial ginseng production is possible in Alberta.
Carbohydrate Crops
Quinoa. This is a broadleaf plant, related to Lambsquarter, that produces grain which is used similar to that of cereal grains. Its nutritional quality appears to be better than the traditional grains because of higher protein content and better amino acid balance. At present, the health food market appears to be the outlet for this crop. It is most adapted to the cool temperatures of high altitude areas (7000 feet) but some varieties are adapted to lower altitudes. Production of this crop in Alberta has been with mixed success. Establishment of a good stand, weed control, and products with low saponin content are important considerations in the production of this crop. At present, most of the Quinoa produced is sold in the organic food markets.
Grain Amaranth. This ancient grain crop is used similar to that of Quinoa, as a pseudo-cereal. Its nutritional quality is also similar to Quinoa. There are several varieties of grain amaranth and some appear to be early enough to grow in southern Alberta. As a relative of the redroot pigweed, the plant is susceptible to frost and seeds will shatter if left too long in the plant. Stand establishment and weed control is still a concern in the production of this crop. Market outlet of the grain is similar to that of Quinoa--in health food stores particularly as an organically grown food.
Oilseed Crops
Sunflower. Most of the sunflower crops grown in Alberta (most grown in the irrigated areas of southern Alberta) is the confectionery type that is used in snack foods and salad bars. However, the development of an open-pollinated, early maturing and short oilseed sunflower, collectively called "SUNOLA," opens up the possibility of growing sunflower in central and northern Alberta. Although sunflower oil quality tends to get better as they are planted northward, the disease consideration and return to the farmer relative to other crops will affect its potential production in central and northern Alberta.
Safflower. This high-quality oil crop is best adapted to the dry, long-growing season of southern Alberta because of its relatively late maturity. The main varieties at present are best suited for the birdseed market although the newer ones have higher oil content that can also be marketed for oil extraction. Certain diseases like Alternaria and Sclerotinia can drastically affect yield.
Other Crops
Stevia. This is a relatively new crop that has been introduced to develop a sweetener product. The active sweetening component found in the leaves of this plant called "stevioside" is believed to be 100-300 times sweeter than sucrose. Field plot tests in Alberta showed the plants to grow slowly and produce leaf yield lower than those grown in Ontario or British Columbia. Its commercial production potential will depend ultimately on the leaf yield of this crop in Alberta relative to other areas.
Hemp. Low-THC hemp for fiber and pulp are at present tested in two locations in Alberta. Permits for their planting were obtained from the Federal Bureau of Dangerous Drugs in Ottawa. Production potential will depend upon the revision of the Narcotics Drug Act, to allow growing low-THC hemp for commercial or industrial purposes, and the economics of growing this crop relative to other sources of fiber and pulp for traditional or niche market products. Varietal adaptation and proper management practices will affect pulp and fiber yields which in turn will affect its economics of production.
Essential Oil Production in Alberta
Dr. Refe Gaudiel, Research Scientist
Crop Diversification Centre South
Brooks, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
It is now possible to stumble upon fields of mint and dill in southern Alberta. However, the commercial production of essential oils in Alberta is relatively small and still in its infancy. This volatile oil, which is derived from natural plant products and imparts an aroma distinctly unique to a particular plant, is used for flavouring food, soft drinks, chewing gum, medicine, and in perfumes and cosmetics. The growth of the flavor and fragrance industry in the United States is forecasted to increase annually and the essential oil portion of this industry is expected to increase by 10% annually in the next 5 years. Alberta producers can take advantage of this opportunity because of a generally lower production cost, less competition from other crops currently grown in the area, and the relatively cheap freight cost of the product to potential markets.
History of Development
From the early 1970's to the mid-80's, small plots of various herbs and spices, including mints, were established at the Alberta Special Crops and Horticultural Research Center at Brooks. The purpose of these plots were for demonstration and evaluation of the adaptability and performance of these crops in Alberta. Observations from these plots provided valuable preliminary data on the adaptability and growth habit of a wide variety of aromatic plant species.
In 1987, with funding support from the Farming for the Future program, more intensive trials were started to determine the adaptability, yield, and quality of various herbs and spices including essential oil crops. Also, grower interest led to the establishment of 0.4 acres of monarda and strip planting of a number of other aromatic crops. This type of monarda plant, developed by the Agriculture Canada Research Station in Morden, produced oil that was rich in geraniol. Geraniol is an alcoholic terpene derivative used by the flavor and perfume industry.
In 1988, the monarda acreage established at Carmangay was increased and a new planting was made at Bow Island. During this time, it was apparent that winter kill can be a problem for newly planted monarda. Test planting and small scale distillation of different crops using a laboratory clevenger-type distillation unit and a semi-commercial portable unit, borrowed from Agriculture Canada at Morden, were used to extract the essential oil and estimate yield. Test planting of fall-planted peppermint was not successful.
In 1989, the monarda acreage again increased and a commercial steam distillation unit was set up by the newly formed PANOIL Company to extract the essential oil. At this time, spearmint was also planted at Bow Island. This was the first time that commercial distillation of monarda and spearmint occurred in Alberta. Other crops such as dill, sweet basil, coriander and caraway were also field tested and numerous crops were planted in large plots and distilled using a pilot distillation unit that approximated results obtained from the large commercial unit.
In 1990, monarda planting was again increased for a total of more than 100 acres. Spearmint acreage was increased and peppermint was again field tested. Field test strips of other crops were also made to learn how to handle and manage these crops in commercial scale. This was the first time that some return was realized from selling the oil.
In 1991, monarda was no longer planted, but spearmint was increased to a few hundred acres and peppermint to slightly over a 100 acres. Also, an essential oil rich in thymol was extracted and produced commercially from a species of monarda. An acre of dill was also tested at Brooks and commercially distilled. This was the year that the first commercial return from essential oil was made in Alberta. This was the year that the "eagle" had landed in Alberta. It remained to be seen whether or not the "eagle" would stay to roost or fly away.
In 1992, there was a reduction of monarda acreage while the acreage of spearmint increased and peppermint remained constant. At this time, another distillation unit was established at Carmangay to provide adequate and convenient extraction of the essential oil from nearby fields. Poor weather limited the yield potential of the crop.
In 1993, the monarda acreage was further reduced while the spearmint and peppermint acreage continued to increase. At this time, plant stand of mint fields were still generally less than optimum but improving. A commercial planting of a few hundred acres of dill was made for the first time in Alberta. The poor weather conditions resulted in poor yields and quality of dill oil.
In 1994, the monarda plantings were abandoned while the mints continued to increase in acreage. Dill was again planted. This was the first time that almost all mint fields had optimum plant stand and gave a good indication of the commercial potential of mint production in Alberta. Dill, although damaged by hail early in the season, also showed good potential in yield and quality.
This year, after about seven years since the start of seriously developing this industry from scratch, Alberta has more than 3000 acres of essential oil crops with a gross farm value of more than $3 million.
Research and Devleopment Efforts
A number of parties contributed greatly to the development of the essential oil industry in Alberta. The presence of the market as represented by the interest of the French company Robertet, the extension and research efforts by crop specialists from Alberta Agriculture, the financial support from Farming for the Future and Alberta Agriculture for research and developmental activities and the growers who took the risk and overcame problems encountered in field production, helped develop the essential oil industry in Alberta.
Most of the research efforts conducted by the Alberta Special Crops and Horticultural Research Center at Brooks, focused on the adaptation of a wide variety of crops, the agronomics and management of a number of potential crops, varietal development, and on the procedures in extracting oil from the different plants and their parts. These research activities parallelled in a "fast-track" mode with the developmental activities occurring in the field to provide needed local practical information.
Equipment and Facilities for Essential Oil Extraction
Steam Distillation Unit
| Boiler | To generate high pressure dry steam used in vaporizing and extracting the oil. Cost depends upon size of the boiler. Allocate approximately 100 hp for every stall used (or tub being distilled). A new 200 hp boiler may cost approximately $40,000 while a 400 hp may cost approximately $70,000. |
| Tubs | These are the mobile tubs that are brought to the field, filled up with chopped plant material and then brought back to the distillation building. It contains headers and steam lines at its floor where steam is passed and dispersed throughout the tub. Depending upon size - approximately $15,000-$20,000 each. |
| Condenser | Condenses the steam and the oil vapours coming out of the tub. The vertical condenser is now commonly used. Approximately $2000 each. |
| Receiver | Receives the condensate or liquefied water vapour and oil coming out from the condenser. It also makes it easy to separate the oil (which usually floats) from the water. Approximately $600 each. |
A distillation unit with 4 stalls can process 400-500 acres of essential oil crops.
Site preparation (water, gas, drainage, power needs) and plumbing, sensors, fittings, etc., will be needed to complete the whole distillation systems.
Field Production Equipment
In addition to standard farm equipments such as cultivators, harrows, sprayers, fertilizer applicators, swather, forage pickup/chopper, tractors and trucks, a mint digger and planter is needed to produce a mint crop. The digger is used to dig the stolons from the mother plants for planting by the mint planter. Each piece of equipment costs approximately $20,000. An acre of mint stock can plant approximately 5-10 acres of new land.
Production Concerns
One of the primary concerns in the production of any perennial crop is the assurance of winter survival and a healthy plant stand at the start of the growing season. Mints can easily winterkill particularly in years where very cold temperatures occur and there is little or no snow cover. Our studies have indicated that severe damage can occur if peppermint stolon is subjected to about -12°C, scotch spearmint at about -14°C and monarda at about -21°C. Certain management practices that will help prevent exposure to these temperatures is necessary.
Prevention of diseases such as verticilium wilt, particularly with peppermint, can be made by using stock plants that are certified to be disease free. Diseases like powdery mildew and rust do affect the mints and monarda but can be controlled by good management practices and chemical sprays.
Weed control is very important because certain weeds impart certain odours to the essential oil that can lead to the downgrading or rejection of the oil by the buyer. Chemical and mechanical weed control is available to enable producers to efficiently produce the mint, monarda, and dill crops. Cost effective weed control is very important in the development of a new essential oil crop.
Quality of the oil being produced is very important because a deviation from the norm may affect marketing of the product. Quality is influenced by the growing season environment, and by the procedures and management followed during production, harvesting, and extraction of the crop.
Other Potential Essential Oil Crops
Other crops that can be grown in Alberta and might have potential for essential oil production are: Anise-Hyssop, Hyssop, different types of monardas, sage, tarragon, and even annuals such as basil, coriander, and summer savoury. For these crops, the availability of markets is very important before large commercial planting is made.
Yield and Estimated Oil Recovery
The following table shows approximate essential oil yields and the percent of oil that may be recovered from the dry matter of different crops.
Approximate Yield and % Recovery
| Crop | Yield
(kg/ha) | Oil Recovery
% (v/dry wt.) |
Monarda
Mint
Basil
Dill
Hyssop
Anise-Hyssop
Tarragon
Summer Savory
Sage | 20 - 80
25 - 80
10 - 20
40 - 100
10 - 15
20 - 35
40 - 60
25 - 40
40 - 70 | 1.0 - 1.5
1.5 - 2.0
0.1 - 0.5
1.0 - 1.5
0.2 - 0.3
0.6 - 0.7
1.5 - 2.0
0.4 - 0.5
1.0 - 1.2 |
Prices fluctuate quite a bit. For example, mint oil prices may vary from $22 to $40/kg. Dill oil may range from $13 to $22/kg.
Market and Demand
The following tables shows the amount of peppermint and spearmint produced in the United States and those imported to the United States from 1990-1994.
| Peppermint | Spearmint |
| U.S. | Imports (%)* | U.S. | Imports (%) |
Production (MT)
1990
1992
1994 |
3153
3349
3372
|
16 (0.5)
41 (1.2)
305 (9.0)
|
1163
1651
1004
|
149 (13)
240 (15)
426 (42)
|
Value (million $)
| | | | |
1990
1992
1994 | 96.62
64.72
108.24 | 0.29 (0.3)
0.65 (0.7)
5.62 (5.2) | 38.2
46.6
27.3 | 2.7 (7)
3.2 (7)
5.2 (19) |
* as % of U.S. production
The above table indicates the increasing amount of peppermint and spearmint oil that is imported to the U.S. relative to local production. This makes local producers more concerned regarding market share and may have implications regarding potential trade barriers.
The following tables show the amount of spearmint and peppermint imported to the U.S. from the 3 main countries from 1990-1994.
| Spearmint Oil Imports to the U.S. |
| 1990 | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 |
| (Metric Tons) |
Canada
China
India | 0.6
124.3
- | 10.8
156.5
2.9 | 19.2
173.8
33.9 | 31.6
158.6
64.6 | 87.5
246.1
90.3 |
| ( 000 $) |
Canada
China
India | 20
2140
- | 360
2780
50 | 630
2010
290 | 980
900
500 | 2520
1560
1060 |
| Peppermint Oil Imports to the U.S. |
| 1990 | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 |
| (Metric Tons) |
Canada
China
India | 0.2
6.4
2.2 | 3.7
5.2
9.4 | 3.8
3.4
23.8 | 4.4
29.4
86.3 | 8.9
122.3
133.3 |
| ( 000 $) |
Canada
China
India | 10
110
40 | 120
70
140 | 90
60
320 | 120
530
1250 | 310
1490
2890 |
In less than 5 years, Canada has become one of the major exporters of spearmint oil to the United States. In 1994, China surpassed Canada in quantity, but in value, Canada is nearly twice as great as China.
Canada's peppermint production was slow to increase, thus it only accounts for a small percentage of the amount (2%) and value (5%) of the total U.S. import.
Crop Diversification in British Columbia From Ginseng to Peony Root
Al Oliver, Provincial Ginseng Specialist
BC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
Kamloops, British Columbia
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Before the discovery of modern medicine, mankind used all sorts of plants, animals parts, and minerals to regain or retain health, often with success. These successes were passed on from generation to generation who subsequently by trial and error improved upon the old formulas.
During the rise in Western medicine as we know it, these traditional herbal medicines were all but forgotten here in N. America. Today we are seeing a resurgence in and for the "old way." Areas like Taiwan are seeing an increase in patients reverting to the old traditional Chinese medicine. They use Western medicine there, as do many SE Asian countries, but have never entirely rejected the traditional as we did.
Eastern North America's indigenous people had a traditional medicinal system very similar to other areas of the world and had American Ginseng, Echinacea, Senega, Goldenseal, Sassafras and Slippery Elm as the mainstay of their medicine chest. Those in the Pacific NW had some of these as well as other plant species. American ginseng, as an example, was used for virtually the same reasons that China used Asian ginseng, a very closely-related plant. Trials over a long enough period came to the same conclusions in two very separate culture groups.
I asked (through a translator) an elderly gentleman from Hong Kong if he used ginseng; his answer was "yes." I then asked why he used it and his answer was almost as brief when he said, "Because it works." This was about 1985, and was the start of my knowledge base for the use of ginseng and other medicinal herbs.
What is a Traditional herbal Medicine?
According to Canada's Health Protection Branch it is "herbal medicinal products that have received relatively little attention in world scientific literature, but for which supporting references have been found acceptable by the Health Protection Branch." The following announcement took this definition one step further.
On February 27, 1996, Vancouver Hospital and Dr. Wan Jun Tze announced the formation of the "Tzu Chi Institute for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine, to be opened this fall (1996). This is the first of its kind in North America and I believe it will be an important step in the validation of many herbal "medicines." It has the support of other hospitals and post-secondary educational facilities as well.
Before we in British Columbia, or anywhere else for that matter, start to promote any plant for any use, the following work needs to be done. At this point, we have only determined this with a couple of alternate plants: ginseng and echinacea.
- The need to do trials to ensure we have the appropriate cultural information to produce an acceptable finished product.
- The need to do economic studies on individual plants to ensure that they are profitable, a very necessary aspect.
- The need to establish the presence of a stable or growing market for the product, domestic or foreign.
- The need to ensure that the regulatory requirements, domestic and international, will allow sale and transfer of product to the marketplace.
Ginseng. About 3000 acres are now in the ground, 500 of which will be harvested in the fall of 1996. American ginseng is in the "health food" category as it is seldom used as a "medicine," but more preventative. It is taken in the form of herbal tea, candy, capsules, chewable tablets, tinctures, ginseng/deer antler mixtures, and many others. American ginseng has been successful in the dry interior, but trials in the more moderate, humid west coast areas of British Columbia have not been a big success. We have also seen a value-added industry start up around ginseng that appears to be very successful.
Echinacea. Purple coneflower is another crop just starting in British Columbia, and many who have perennial borders will know it. There are about 35 growers now and more are planning on planting in 1996. Our concern here is the item 3 mentioned above about a stable or growing market, which at this time is a question. I
have no doubt this crop will grow well in British Columbia and will be relatively easy to grow, but we will right from day one have to be competitive and displace or create new markets. We can be and are competitive here in many horticultural commodities.
The following is a list of possible alternate crops I have gleaned from various books, articles, etc., that I have in my library. The most important sources of information are listed in a bibliography as part of this presentation and there are many others.
One of the problems developing a list like this is the usage of common names. It can get you into a lot of trouble or send you on a wild goose chase real fast. An example is the common name "Sarsaparilla." In western Canada, it refers to Aralia nudicaulis and has no medicinal usage I can find; while in the southern USA "Sarsasparilla" refers to Smilax glauca, the plant used medicinally. So do your homework and pay close attention to the botanical names of plants as these are the same all over the world. Another example is "Snakeroot" which has four different plants attached to one common name.
Common Name | Botanical Name | Part Used and Form | BC Native or Introduced |
| Alfalfa | Medicago sativa | dried leaves | introduced |
| Arnica | Arnica montana | flowers | native |
| Autumn Crocus | Colchicum autumnale | bulbs | introduced |
| Barberry | Berberis vulgaris | root and stem bark | introduced |
| Bearberry | Arctostaphylos uva-ursi | leaves and berries | native |
| Billberry | Vacinium myrtillus | berries | possible |
| Blackberry | Rubus fruticosis | root | native |
| Bloodroot | Sanguinaria canadensis | rhizome | introduced |
| Black currant | Ribes nigrum | leaves and fruit | native |
| Burdock | Arctium lappa | root | native-weed |
| Butchers broom | Ruscus aculeatus | all parts | possible |
| Castor Bean | Ricinus communis | all parts | introduced |
| Cayenne | Capsicum annuum | fruit | introduced |
| Chinese Boxthorn | Lycium chinense | fruit and root bark | introduced |
| Chamomile (P) | Chamamelum nobile | flower | introduced |
| Chokecherry | Prunus virginiana | bark | native |
| Chicory | Cichorium intybus | root | introduced |
| Comfrey | Symphytum officinale | all parts | introduced |
| Cranberry | Vaccinium macrocarpon | berry | native |
| Dandelion | Taraxacum officinale | all parts | introduced |
| Daphne | Daphne mezerium | berries and bark | introduced |
| Devils Club | Oplopanax horridus | root and stem bark | native |
| Dock | Rumex crispis | root | native |
| Echinacea | Echinacea spp | all parts | introduced |
| Elderberry (black) | Sambucus canadensis | flowers | native |
| English Walnut | Juglans nigra | seed & seed husk | introduced |
| Feverfew | Tanacetum parthenium | above ground parts | introduced |
| Foxglove | Digitalis purpurea | leaves | introduced |
| Garlic | Allium sativum | cloves | introduced |
| Gingko | Ginkgo biloba | leaves & seeds | introduced |
| Ginseng | Panax spp | root | introduced |
| Goldenrod | Solidago virgaurea | leaves & flowers | native |
| Goldenseal | Hydrastics canadensis | roots | introduced |
| Hawthorn | Crataegus spp | berries & flowers | native |
| Horseradish | Armoracia rusticana | root | introduced |
| Horsetail | Equisetum arvense | aerial parts | native |
| Juniper | Juniperus commumis | berries | native |
| Linden | Tillia spp | flow, leaves, bark | introduced |
| Milk Thistle | Silybum marianum | all parts | introduced |
| Mullein | Verbascum thapsus | all parts | introduced/wildcraft |
| Nettles | Urtica dioica | leaves | native |
| Oregon Grape | Mahonia aquifolium | root | native |
| Red Raspberry | Rubus idaeus | leaves | native |
| Chinese Rhubarb | Rheum officinale | root | introduced |
| Rose Hips | Rosa spp | seed hip covering | native/introduced |
| Saffron crocus | Crocus sativus | stigma & style tops | introduced |
| Sagebrush | Artemesia tridentata | leaves & flowers | native |
| Safflower | Carthamus tinctorus | petals | introduced |
| Sea Buckthorn | Hippophae rhamnoides | berries | introduced |
| Seneca | Polygala senega | root | introduced |
| Siberian Ginseng | Eleutherococcus senticosis | root and bark | introduced |
| St. John's Wort | Hypericum perforatum | leaves and flowers | introduced-weed |
| Tansy | Tanacetum vulgare | leaves | introduced |
| Witch Hazel | Hamamelis virginiana | leaves, twigs, seed | introduced |
| Wormwood | Artemesia absinthium | leaves | introduced |
| Yarrow | Achillea millefolium | all parts | native-wildcraft |
Cautions
Some of the plants listed above are presently on Health and Welfare Canada's restricted list, and a couple are on the noxious weeds list in British Columbia, so discussions need to take place regarding their actual growing. Burdock is a good example as it is on the noxious list for most of British Columbia as Burdock spp, and it is also becoming important as an exotic vegetable in some ethnic groups but more popular as a medicinal herb. How do we get these two aspects of the same plant to work together?Another area of concern for new introductions into British Columbia is the aspect of plants escaping cultivation to become a weed problem. Most of the weeds on our noxious weed list are introduced plants. What will a plant like milk thistle do when it escapes? I have some concerns about allowing anything to be grown without some planning and careful thought.
Why does Health Canada Have Regulations?
There are many plants or plant parts around the world that are extremely poisonous, some of them are in British Columbia. Others have concerns in areas of side effects in long term usage. One plant in British Columbia, water hemlock, which is not used as a medicine, takes only the residue left on a knife used to dissect this plant for identification to kill a grown man. It is not the plants like lettuce which one could "eat all day" that they are protecting us from. There was also a seed called "rosary pea" that was imported and used for costume jewellery, where one seed could kill a child (and did) before it was banned from import. This seed and other plants like it are used in Chinese traditional medicine in controlled amounts. The new facility in Vancouver may eventually legitimize such uses in controlled amounts while at present it can't be allowed.
Opportunities
There may be opportunities to grow herbal plants in British Columbia for the Asian marketplace; ones we haven't heard of yet. A few possible ones are in the above list. As the agricultural land base in Asia decreases, we may be able to grow some things for them.
There may also be opportunities to supply items to the local herbalists who use small amounts of various things. One herbalist I have talked to said his expenses for freight average 50¢/lb. This is a big advantage on some items, if they come from Europe or Asia, for example.
Hemp, I believe, will soon be grown in Canada as a fiber crop, if not a medicinal. Health Canada has just released a document where they are recognizing the difference between the Cannabis varieties and will probably increase the permits to grow this commodity. It does not come with any manufacturing infrastructure, so that will have to be developed.
As well as field cultivation there is an area of sourcing plants known as Wildcrafting. This is where an item is harvested from the wild in an orderly fashion so as to not deplete or substantially reduce the number of plants in the wild. Since British Columbia is about 95% crown land and most of this forested, this has great potential and in fact is a large business already. This control was not done with American ginseng and it is basically an extinct plant in much of its indigenous territory. Regulations on this are being discussed and it may be more controlled in the future.
Some areas where this is currently practised are:
1. Mushrooms--Pine and others
2. Dried materials
3. Wild berries
4. Medicinal herbs
5. Seeds
6. Florist materials
What are we not talking about in British Columbia
Large Acreage crops, for example mint' that is very competitive and requires up to 10,000 acres to set up an infrastructure to extract the oils.
Exotics like "Kenaf"-- a pulp replacer again requiring large acres. It is an annual but doesn't grow enough bulk here to compete. Poplar and willow spp may be an option at the present time and a good use of marginal land.
Illegals like hemp (pot). This one may come in the future as a textile and pulp product and again needing multi-acres to produce the necessary volume.
What are Governments doing in British Columbia
At the present time and probably for the future, the BC Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food has no land base. We work with other agencies such as commodity organizations, growers, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, and universities to gather information. Our role is very much one of extension.
We have recently taken some time to look at Echinacea after questions began to flow across our desks. Unless pressure is put on us by the growers for specific crops like Ginseng, Kiwi, and Echinacea, we have not taken the time nor do we have the manpower to look in detail at all of the plants on the above list.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada are moving more to looking at alternate crops at the stations in British Columbia. Agissiz is in the process of developing a repository of seed and plants for medicinal, culinary, herbal, and native plants for observation and as a source of plant material. Our Ministry will work closely with this. They have and are also looking at other alternative crops.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada at Summerland have ginseng research gardens in place and are adding some trial plots of echinacea. They are also looking at other things and have given some importance to alternate crops for British Columbia agriculture.
Government budgets are being squeezed more all the time and we are suggesting that you, particularly growers, begin to acquire information on things that interest you. Use local libraries, talk to herb companies, health food stores, herbalists, etc., and develop expertise in some of these areas by yourself. Get a few plants and/or seeds and see how things grow. Cooperate with friends in various micro climates, etc., to see what happens.
Governments are becoming less able to carry the load and even now much research done is a joint venture with industry.
Start to find information on cultural and other requirements, best time to harvest, what parts are used, pest problems, ship dry or fresh, market needs, expected returns, and labor requirements.
Perspectives on Medicinal uses of Native Plants
Robin J. Marles, Ph.D., Associate Professor
Botany Department, Brandon University
Brandon, Manitoba
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Sixty thousand years ago in what is now a part of Iran, a Neanderthal man was buried together with eight medicinal plants, one of which was Ephedra, still used today as a herb or source of the drug ephedrine to treat asthma and congestion due to colds. Despite their long history of effective use, many herbal medicines have fallen out of favour, like Perry Davis Painkiller with spruce oil, chili pepper oleoresin, and 46% alcohol, which would certainly be "warming" as the label claims. However, the history of medicine is truly the history of medicinal plants. Although some people might think they are merely of historical interest, actually 25% of the prescriptions dispensed from our pharmacies contain active principles derived from plants. Currently there are over 120 plant-derived drugs in professional use world-wide, three-quarters of which were discovered through scientific investigations of traditional medicines.
Here in Canada our knowledge of medicinal plant use does not extend back 60,000 years because most of Canada was under ice at that time. Even within historical times, the shortage of written records on native plant use limits our knowledge of the length of time for which particular plants have been used. Nevertheless, the many First Nations of Canada have rich oral traditions of medicinal plant use remembered by tribal elders.
A number of Canadian plants used by native people in traditional medicine have found a place in our modern pharmacopoeia. For example, the west coast's Cascara Sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana, Rhamnaceae) provides the safe and effective anthraquinone glycoside, cascaroside A, found in many commercial laxative preparations. Several alkaloid-containing plants have become important, including green hellebore (Veratrum viride, Liliaceae) of BC and AB as a source of antihypertensive protoveratrines and bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis, Papaveraceae) from our eastern forests as a source of the antibiotic sanguinarine. Two Canadian plants recently have become famous as sources of anticancer agents: the eastern may apple (Podophyllum peltatum, Podophyllaceae) from which etoposide and teniposide lignin glycosides are derived, and the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolius, Taxaceae), from which taxol is obtained. The complexity of the chemical structures of these active principles is a good indication of why, while total chemical syntheses are possible, in most cases it is more economical to extract the active principle or its precursor from the source plant.
A number of different directions may be followed in medicinal plant research. From cultivated marigolds (Tagetes patula, Asteraceae) we have been studying thiophene constituents that are showing great promise as environmentally friendly pesticides for agriculture, forestry, and disease vector control. Most recently, we have discovered derivatives which show selective inhibition of the reproduction and cytopathic effects of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) that causes AIDS. Derivatization is often an important step for selectivity of action of natural product drugs, since these compounds evolved as defenses against herbivores and plant pathogens, where great potency and a broad spectrum of activity would be more advantageous than selectivity. Derivatization also helps to make a patentable product that drug companies will be interested in developing and marketing.
The antimigraine herbal drug, feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium, Asteraceae) varies both qualitatively and quantitatively in its active constituents, including sesquiterpene lactones such as parthenolide, and biological activities. We have studied a number of varieties by HPLC and assayed their blood platelet serotonin release inhibition, inhibition of some enzymes, and cytotoxicity in order to gain a better understanding of their antimigraine activity and selectivity. One of the outcomes of this work was to establish standards for the licensing of a registered crude drug, Tanacet 125, for the prophylaxis of migraines. We are continuing to study pure sesquiterpene lactones from both natural and semisynthetic sources and have some leads through molecular modelling of their three-dimensional shape and physicochemical properties for the development of more selective, less toxic antimigraine agents.
The commercial success of plant-derived drugs, now an industry estimated to be worth over $40 billion world-wide, has led to a great deal of interest in medicinal plants as alternative crops. This is particularly important for the prairie provinces, where 72% of Canadian farm bankruptcies occur, with a frequency which has increased 1000% over the last 15 years. Farmers looking to diversify beyond the traditional grain and oilseed crops are hoping for opportunities with native prairie medicinal plants such as purple coneflower (Echinacea angustifolia, Asteraceae), which is in demand as a non-specific immune system stimulant to prevent common illnesses such as colds. A wide range of commercial Echinacea products, including liquid extracts, teas, and capsules of dried herb, are now available, supplied primarily by large US operations such as Trout Farms.
The forest industry is also looking for alternate crops. Although Canada has 10% of the world's forests, we are currently harvesting approximately one million hectares/year (10,000 km²) which, when coupled with natural losses due to fires and insect infestations, represents a significant proportion of the available resource (perhaps >1%). Diversification of the forest industry with non-timber forest resources has already included mosses and birchbark for floral arrangements, willow withes for wickerwork, lichens for architectural models and mushrooms for exported foods. Canadian ginseng (Panax quinquefolius, Araliaceae), native to our eastern hardwood forests, has now become an important cultivated crop in Ontario and British Columbia, and is of increasing importance here in the prairie provinces. One area we need to focus more attention on is value-added processing for both local and export markets. We can learn from the Koreans, who are producing a wide range of Oriental ginseng (P. ginseng) products including novelties such as ginseng roots preserved in honey and ginseng chewing gum.
Interest in diversifying the forest industry with non-timber plant resources led the Canadian Forest Service to fund my boreal ethnobotany project, which is looking at the traditional uses of boreal forest plants by our First Nations elders as a guide to the discovery of new ideas for plants with potential for economic development. This project, which involves more than 20 communities across central and northern Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, has provided ethno-botanical training to 14 First Nations students who worked with botany students in collaborative teams. Students interviewed elders (usually in their native language) to obtain ethno-botanical information which is supported by the collection of voucher specimens and information from detailed literature reviews.
Advantages of this approach include
- the linguistic and cultural skills of the native students who also gain technical skills,
- the technical skills of the botany students who gained a greater cultural awareness,
- cultural preservation through the making of permanent records of plant use and passing of the knowledge between generations,
- the identification of new potential renewable resources for economic development of First Nations communities, and
- the diversification of the forest industry which may lead to greater stability, employment, and sustainability.
The project has resulted in the collection of information on over 100 species of plants, covering a broad range of uses including food plants such as aspen (Populus tremuloides, Salicaceae), inner bark "noodles," and cloud berries (Rubus chamaemorus, Rosaceae) which could be important for potential improvements to local nutrition, variety in the diet, and perhaps marketable food products. Some food plants could be sources of nutriceuticals, e.g. fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium, Onagraceae) leaves which are rich in vitamins A and C: 18,708 I.U. of A and 220 mg of C/100 g fresh weight of leaves, compared with 200 I.U. of A and 50 mg of C in an orange. We are looking at plants used for technology and handicrafts, e.g. production of snowshoes, baskets, drums, and toys made from such materials as birch bark and wood (Betula papyrifera, Betulaceae), spruce roots (Picea glauca, Pinaceae), and tamarack wood (Larix laricina, Pinaceae). These products have a significant value-added component. Ritual uses of plants include sweet grass (Hierochloe odorata, Poaceae), which is in great demand for ceremonial smoke-cleansing, and could be developed as a new crop.
Of particular interest to me are the medicinal uses of plants, which of course within the native traditions cannot be completely separated from the spiritual aspects of plant use. Tobacco is given to the earth in exchange for plants taken from it, a concept of respect and reciprocity that we would do well to emulate in our quest for sustainable development of native species. As all cultures have different beliefs about the cause of diseases, we do not expect every plant used medicinally to have demonstrable biological effects, i.e. we are not looking for promises of eternal youth, perpetual health and muscles of steel. While some plants' effects may depend on psychological mechanisms, which are always an important part of healing, e.g. the placebo effect, the medicinal actions of many remedies can be explained by their phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities. For example, the use of the poisonous mushroom (Amanita muscaria, Agaricaceae) as an eyewash for eye infections can be supported by its content of muscarine which stimulates tear production. Wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepiota, Fabaceae) is known to have triterpene glycosides that ease sore throats, and cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum, Apiaceae) has photo activated furanocoumarins effective against skin diseases. One of the most widely used and potentially marketable native medicinal plants is sweet flag or ratroot (Acorus calamus, Araceae), which due to its content of phenylpropanoids and other constituents has been proven to be a safe and effective antispasmodic for gastrointestinal problems and coughs--two of its principal traditional uses.
Promising plants which have not been adequately studied pharmacognostically include purple aster (Aster puniceus, Asteraceae) as a headache medicine and wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis, Araliaceae) as a medicine for the heart and other purposes. Even the trees which are currently being harvested for their wood, such as jack pine (Pinus banksiana, Pinaceae), could also be extracted for pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals including antioxidant proanthocyanidin oligomers (pycnogenol) and flavonoids for health and pest control products. Mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp., Loranthaceae), which infects conifers to cause witches'-broom and is the subject of expensive eradication efforts, might prove to be useful as a source of antiviral lectins. Putting a price on the head of pests and weeds can encourage their removal and provide a profit instead of a liability.
One forest plant which is already a commercial drug is bearberry or kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Ericaceae), whose leaves are registered as a diuretic for over-the-counter use. Currently we are importing this common species from the United States! Value-added processing of these native medicinal plants will be essential to reduce the volume and weight and increase the value in order to make transport affordable.
Finally, we are also looking into the ecology of potential economic species in order to assess the sustainability and environmental impact of harvest. Most native species would have to be cultivated to assure a sustainable supply, but we do have precedents for commercial methods of production set by the cultivation of other forest species such as Canadian ginseng. It has been virtually exterminated in its natural habitat by excessive "wildcrafting" originally promoted by Jesuit missionaries over 200 years ago.
In summary, there are many native medicinal plants that are potentially useful as sources of drugs and as alternate crops for diversification of the agricultural and forest industries, especially if processed locally to improve their value. Many leads are being provided by the traditional knowledge resource of our First Nations communities which should be followed up by scientific investigations. It is hoped that everyone will be able to share in the health and economic benefits that these products may eventually provide.
Varietal Improvement of Herbs: Prospects and Challenges
Conrad Richter, Vice-President
Richters Herbs
Goodwood, Ontario
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Compared to other agricultural and horticultural crops, herbs have not been the subject of much varietal improvement. In many cases, we are working with plants that, until recently, have been harvested from wild populations for the commercial dried herb market. With increasing demand of herbs of all types--culinary, medicinal and aromatic--the need to cultivate herbs is greater than ever.
At the same time we are seeing a large increase in interest among Canadian farmers to try herbs as an alternative to traditional cash crops. Attracted by revenues often exceeding $10,000 per hectare, farmers are willing to experiment with crops about which they have little agronomic and marketing information.
Because commercial herb industry in Canada is still in its infancy, the knowledge base at all levels--farmer, government, and the seed industry--is lacking. Out of ignorance, the seed industry is still selling seeds of inferior varieties that yield unmarketable crops. Fortunately that is slowly changing, but I cannot stress enough the importance of ensuring that the propagative material growers are working with is right.
A list of medicinal plants grown commercially in Canada. It is not by any means, a complete list as it does not include plants grown for the potted herb market for sale to home herb gardeners, but it contains the important medicinals judged from bulk seed and plant sales at Richters. It is immediately obvious from Table 1 that few medicinal herbs are currently available in improved varietal form. Of the 17 herbs shown, only 9 are available in varietal form; the rest are only available in forms unimproved from the wild species. Of the few varieties that are available, most are horticultural cultivars selected for ornamental features, not for greater medicinal potency or better agronomic performance. To be sure everyone understands the terminology, I am using "varieties" and "species" to mean named cultivars selected from a species.
One of the challenges we face as a herb seed company trying to bring the best varieties to the market is that many improved varieties are unavailable. Established growers who make their own selections from their crops do not offer seeds to other growers or to seed suppliers like us. For example, a large grower of narrowleaf echinacea (Echinacea angustifolia) roots annually destroy over 1000 pounds of seed to inhibit new entrants to the industry. This grower has apparently judged that it is better to forego over $100,000 in seed revenue in order to maximize his return on roots.
Another challenge is the complex chemical profiles medicinal plants often have. In some cases, like ginseng and echinacea, it is not clear which chemical constituents are important medicinally, so selective breeding for improved chemotypes is problematic. Breeding projects on poorly defined species tend to focus on total constituent content by class of compounds or on gross agronomic characters like bulk dry weight yield, uniformity of growth and maturation.
Current Availability of Improved Medicinal Plant Varieties
In rough order of importance commercially, I would like to walk you through our fields of medicinal herbs. These are by no means of only herbs that are or could be grown in Canada commercially.
Ginseng. Three species are grown, but no improved varieties are yet available. Panax quinquefolius is the American ginseng which is now the biggest commercial herb crop in Canada in terms of revenue. Panax ginseng is the most common Asiatic ginseng grown in China and Korea. Because most of the market for ginseng roots is still in the Orient, there is little demand for North American grown P. ginseng since it is generally assumed that the Orient will supply the market and that North American-grown roots would not meet quality expectations. Siberian ginseng, Eleutherococcus senticosus (also known as Acanthopanax senticosus), a woody understorey shrub used for its adaptogenic properties, is now grown on a limited scale in North America. Seeds have been in very short supply the past four years because of the infrastructural chaos in the former Soviet Union, but supplies are improving with the availability of Chinese seeds. All ginseng species require stratification to break seed dormancy. Typically, the Panax species are sold as stratified seeds while Siberian ginseng is sold as dry seed. The optimal stratification protocol is not yet known for Siberian ginseng; the seeds take at least two years to germinate and the germination is slow and sporadic.
Echinacea. Three species are in commerce. The most important are E. purpurea, the purple coneflower, and E. angustifolia, the narrow leaf coneflower. The former has long been a horticultural subject of some prominence in the perennial market with cultivars available in a variety of colours. No cultivars have been released for the medicinal plant market. E. angustifolia has only recently entered into cultivation as wild stands in the prairies are becoming depleted and because of confusion in the dried root market with the pale-purple echinacea, E. pallida, which is often found where E. angustifolia grows. Again, no varietal improvements are available, and growers should beware of frequent intentional or unintentional substitution of E. pallida seeds for E. angustifolia. E. pallida's constituent profile is quite different from that of the other echinaceas, but the plant is medicinally active even though the market price suggests it is not as highly regarded as E. angustifolia.
Borage. Only available in the type species. Borage seeds are a source of gamma-linolenic acid and so it has become a minor crop on the prairies. There is a need to modify this crop so that seeds mature more uniformly. Presently, the majority of seeds shatter before they can be harvested. No improved varieties are yet available.
Evening primrose. Another source of gamma-linolenic acid, to which the medicinal effects are attributed. One species, Oenothera biennis, native to southern Canada has been improved principally due to the breeding efforts of John Baker during his tenure at the Indian Agriculture Project in Ontario. Two cultivars are now available with enhanced gamma-linolenic acid content, up to 12%.
Feverfew. Principally one species, Tanacetum parthenium (also known as Chrysanthemum parthenium), but in fact, feverfew may be a complex of several species. Feverfew has long been a subject of horticultural interest, with single- and double-flowered types available as well as golden-leaved and compact bush types available for the bedding plant market. Dennis Awang et al. (1991) showed that dried feverfew herb sold in tablets or in bulk varied considerably in parthenolide content, from 0% to over 1% by weight. Our own screening studies (see below) have shown that much of this variation may be attributed to the variety of feverfew grown.
Goldenseal. One species, Hydrastis canadensis. Goldenseal is a woodland species native to eastern North America. Most root material is still collected from wild stands; but as goldenseal becomes depleted in many areas, there is increasing interest to grow it under conditions similar to those required by ginseng. The seeds are unreliable for propagation, so most propagation is by rootlets from wild or cultivated sources.
Catnip. One species, Nepeta cataria. There is one subspecies with a slight lemon fragrance, N. cataria spp. citriodora, but this variety is not grown commercially for catnip herb production. The main market for the dried herb is of course for cats, but catnip is also important in medicinal herbal teas. No improved varieties are available. We have seen considerable variation in growth habit in this plant depending on the seed source, so there are opportunities to select for greater uniformity for mechanized harvest.
St. Johns wort. One species, Hypericum perforatum, available in two improved cultivars selected for higher hypericin content. Hypericin has anti-depressant and anti-viral properties. Cultivars are available with up to 0.5% hypericin and yields of 2.5 tonnes dry herb per hectare.
Valerian. Several species are in commerce, but the market is dominated by one species, Valeriana officinalis. Selections are available with enhanced yields of roots and essential oil and more uniform growth for mechanized harvest. Valerian is highly susceptible to a crown root rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) which has devastated some fields in Canada, so selections exhibiting resistance to root rot are needed.
Milk Thistle. Source of the heptaoprotective and regenerative substance, silimarin. Only one species and no improved varieties are available, although the silimarin content could be a ready target for varietal improvement. There is concern that this species could become invasive in parts of Canada where the seeds can survive the winter, but as yet there is no evidence that it is actually invasive.
Foxglove. Two species are grown for digitalis glycoside production. The dominant species is the Grecian foxglove, Digitalis lanata. One variety with elevated glycoside content is available for the pharmaceutical trade. D. purpurea also possesses cardioactive glycosides, but all the available varieties are ornamental selections with unknown medicinal status.
Chamomile. The two principal species grown are the Roman or English chamomile, Chamomaelum nobile (formerly Anthemis nobilis), and German or Hungarian chamomile, Matricaria recutita (M. chamomilla). Roman chamomile comes in several ornamental varieties--one with double flowers and the other non-flowering--but improved varieties for the medicinal market are not available. An improved German variety is now available with more erect, sturdier growth habit, larger flowers and high (0.7%) essential oil content. The German species is annual and is by far the more important species commercially, but the Roman species, which is perennial (though unreliably so in most parts of Canada) is considered more aromatic.
Angelica. The species grown in North America and Europe for the medicinal roots is A. Archangelica. No improved cultivars are available. The native North American species, A. atropurpurea, is not cultivated to any extent because the plant is less aromatic and the juice of the fresh plants is acrid (although the acridity is reduced with drying). The Chinese species, A. sinensis and A. dahurica, both important medicinal herbs, are not yet in commercial cultivation in North America because of the unavailability of propagative material; but supplies of viable seeds will soon be available for the first time in quantity in 1997 and both are expected to become significant medicinal crops in North America over the next few years. The seeds of all angelica species are short-lived, usually lasting less than one year.
Sheep sorrel. One species, Rumex acetosella. Widely naturalized in North America in areas where the soil is acidic. An ingredient of the Essiac® and other anti-cancer formulas. There have been shortages in recent years and much of material in the commercial trade is adulterated with other Rumex species. Sheep sorrel is now coming under cultivation to ease shortages, but the plant is considerable smaller an less productive than other Rumex species and the temptation to adulterate will continue to be high.
Burdock. Two Eurasian species, Arctium lappa, the great burdock, and A. minus, the common burdock, are widely naturalized in North America. Both are medicinally active, although A. lappa is the species most commonly employed in the herb trade. Burdock is another ingredient of the Essiac® formula and so it too has been in high demand and is now coming under cultivation. In Japan, burdock is a popular root vegetable and improved varieties are available for that market. It is unknown whether the Japanese varieties are equivalent to the wild material of North America. Seeds of the Japanese varieties tend to be cheaper and more reliable, so growers are now using the Japanese seeds (often sold under the Japanese name gobo).
Comfrey. Several species are in cultivation, but two, Symphytum x uplandicum, the Russian comfrey, and S. officinale, the common comfrey, are the most important for the commercial herb market. The common comfrey was the species traditionally used in Europe, but it is highly susceptible to rust. In the 1960s, Lawrence Hills of the Henry Doubleday Research Association in the United Kingdom developed the more rust-resistant Bocking varieties, of which No. 4 and No. 14 are still commonly available. The latter is considered the best in terms of medicinal activity and yield. Seeds are not available for Bocking No. 4 and No. 14; the plant is propagated by root cuttings only.
Demand for comfrey has dropped in recent years because of the discovery of liver-damaging pyrollizidine alkaloids present in all parts of the plant and Health Canada intervention banning comfrey products. We feel that comfrey was unfairly the victim of a witchhunt because the plant was never traditionally used internally as a food plant and supplement in the matter that it was promoted in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-traditional chronic internal use led to some reports of liver damage. As a result, a valuable external healing agent for broken bones and skin ulcers is all but lost to the public due to overreaction by the public health authorities. Comfrey roots and leaves are still sold on the bulk herb market, but there is no longer much demand. The comfrey experience should serve as a warning to farmers that their market can disappear virtually overnight if their product is deemed unsafe. We hear that there are efforts to develop a pyrollidizidine-free comfrey, but even if these efforts meet with success, it will be difficult to reverse government restrictions on products containing comfrey.
Nettle. Another wild plant recently introduced to cultivation. Several species are used but the perennial, Urtica dioica, is the most commonly grown and sold on the dried herb market. No improved varieties are available.
A Project to Improve Feverfew
Richters began a project to improve feverfew in 1994. Following the Awang et al. (1991) report that commercial feverfew products frequently lacked the sesquiterpene lactones, parthenolides, we were interested to first check the status of our feverfews and then to develop varieties with enhanced parthenolide content. We screened the commercially available varieties in field trials, recording key agronomic characters and testing dried leaf samples by HPLC for parthenolide content.
The wide variation in parthenolide content that Awang et al. (1991) found in commercial feverfew products was parallelled by our results for 12 commercially available varieties. Table 2 shows dry leaf parthenolide content ranging from 0.0% to 0.7% (wt/wt). Richters feverfew was the highest of the seed lines tested.
Dry weight yields varied considerably also, ranging from less than one tonne per hectare to over five tonnes per hectare. The highest yielding variety, No. 8, contained no parthenolide, so it easy to see how commercial feverfew products lacking medicinal activity might have penetrated the dried herb market.
Visual characteristics varied widely among the 12 varieties tested. Virtually every leaf, flower, size character measured varied widely among the lines tested. It may be that commercially available feverfews are a complex of species, not just the presumed Tanacetum parthenium.
Even within some of the lines there was considerable variation in height and flowering times. This variation within lines offers the possibility of selecting improved varieties. Early selections now in development are close to or exceeding 1% parthenolides. We hope to introduce new selections in 1997 or 1998.
The Future: Micropropagation and Artificial Seeds
Many of the best cultivars of herbs cannot be reproduced by natural seeds. Richters has begun a research program to develop commercially viable methods of producing herbs using micropropagation. Micropropagation offers the possibility of producing large numbers of genetically identical plants from one plant that has been identified as possessing superior medicinal and agronomic properties. Micropropagation methods are currently too labour-intensive for wide application to field crops, but technologies are advancing and there is now the prospect of cheaper methods.
Our long range goal is to develop artificial seeds for those varieties that cannot be grown from natural seeds. Artificial seeds are obtained from arrested somatic embryos that are desiccated and coated. Dry embryos can be stored and germinated much like natural seeds which can greatly increase the possibilities of commercial field production of enhanced varieties. We regard this as a long-shot project, but we feel the potential for the nascent herb industry in Canada is great.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the work of our research partners, Praveen Saxena of the Department of Horticulture Science, University of Guelph, and John Baker of Stonehedge Phytomedicinals. We also acknowledge financial support from NSERC, the NRC's IRAP program, and Agriculture Canada.
REFERENCE
Awang D V C, B A Dawson, D G Kindack, C W Crompton and S Heptinstall (1991). Parthenolide content of feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) assessed by HPLC and 1H-nmr spectroscopy. Journal of Natural Products 54:1516-1521.
Medicinals Grown Commercially in Canada
| Availability | Propagation |
| Species | Varieties | Seeds | Plants |
| Ginseng | 3 | 0 | yes | |
| Echinacea | 3 | 4+ | yes | |
| Borage | 1 | 0 | yes | |
| Evening primrose | 1 | 2 | yes | |
| Feverfew | 1 | 12+ | yes | |
| Goldenseal | 1 | 0 | | yes |
| Catnip | 1 | 0 | yes | |
| St. John's wort | 1 | 2 | yes | |
| Valerian | 1 | 2 | yes | |
| Milk Thistle | 1 | 0 | yes | |
| Foxglove | 3 | 2 | yes | |
| Chamomile | 2 | 3 | yes | yes |
| Angelica | 1 | 0 | yes | |
| Sheep Sorrel | 1 | 0 | yes | |
| Burdock | 2 | 2 | yes | |
| Comfrey | 3 | 2 | yes/no | yes |
| Nettle | 1 | 0 | yes | |
Percent Parthenlide of Selected Commercial Varieties of Feverfew
Variety # | Mean %
Parthenolide | Fishers protected L.S.D.
(0.05 level) |
6 | 0.711 | a | | | | | | |
2 | 0.462 | | b | | | | | |
11 | 0.396 | | b | c | | | | |
12 | 0.382 | | b | c | | | | |
3 | 0.355 | | b | c | | | | |
5 | 0.323 | | | c | d | | | |
4 | 0.278 | | | c | d | e | | |
9 | 0.214 | | | | d | e | f | |
1 | 0.164 | | | | | e | f | |
7 | 0.127 | | | | | | f | |
8 | 0.000 | | | | | | | g |
10 | 0.000 | | | | | | | g |
Dry Weight Yields of Selected Commercial Varieties of Feverfew
| Mean Yield
(kg/ha) | Fisheries protected L.S.D.
(0.05 level) |
8 | 5,280 | a | | | | | | |
2 | 3,698 | | b | | | | | |
5 | 3,409 | | b | | | | | |
11 | 3,342 | | b | | | | | |
12 | 2,542 | | | c | | | | |
6 | 2,533 | | | c | d | | | |
4 | 1,987 | | | c | d | e | | |
3 | 1,876 | | | | d | e | | |
9 | 1,333 | | | | | e | f | g |
7 | 1,320 | | | | | | f | g |
10 | 978 | | | | | | | g |
1 | 969 | | | | | | | g |
Is There a Future for the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Industry on the Prairies?
Len Donais
Northern Essentials Inc.
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Root Cellar Greenhouses
22,000 square feet of greenhouse space and 42 acres of land along the North Saskatchewan River in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. Major activity is producing bedding plants for local market as well as growing medicinal herbs and aromatic plants for sale.
Northern Wild Harvest
Buy and sell wild fruit and berries from our northern forests. Buy and export wild mushrooms which grow in our area. Gather, purchase, package and export natural products gathered from our forests e.g. birch bark, various mosses, lichens, etc. This company is responsible for growing medicinal and aromatic herbs. Crops grown include: Angelica, Milk Thistle, Valerian Pyrethrum, three varieties of Echinacea, Clary Sage, Rue, Yarrow, Lovage, Syrian Pumpkin.
Northern Essentials Inc.
This company was established four years ago to investigate and produce essential oils from products of our northern forest and from field crops that can be grown in our area. We have extracted oils from White Spruce, Black Spruce, Balsam Fir, and Jackpine as well as from Dill weed, Dill seed, Cilantro, Coriander seed, Caraway seed and Anise. Partnership includes a young farmer with 2,000 acres of farmland. He has devoted approximately 500 acres for the production of spice crops for 1996. Our plans include the development of extraction and fractionating facilities for the field grown crops in co-operation with an offshore company wishing to joint venture with us.
Is There a Future for the medicinal and Aromatic Plants Industry on the Prairies?
Ernest Eder, Owner
La Boheme Restaurant
Edmonton, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
The time is now. . . The future is now . . .
The world is changing at such a fast pace our way of life is changing so drastically. Baby Boomers are turning grey and after so many years of abusing and neglecting their bodies, they now want to return to good health.
That's where we come in. In my restaurant in Edmonton, which I have operated for the last fifteen years, I have had a very close up view of this phenomena.
There is a fast changing pattern in health care. We do not trust the medical system blindly any more. We have become aware of what we eat, how we upkeep these wonderful machines called our bodies. We want to learn how to STAY healthy, how to feel good in our bodies. This is why this time is ours.
French culinary art has a very long tradition of use of herbs. In everything that we prepare we add herbs. I noticed amongst my customers this growing interest in herbs, so I started a herb garden just outside my restaurant on the city boulevard; it became a tourist attraction.
In 1991 my passion for horses made me invest in a horse farm. All that horse manure we were producing inspired me to put back to use what I had learned from my grandmother. As a child we rarely had to call a doctor, my grandmother was providing remedies for everything. Guess what... they were all herbal remedies.
My interest grew stronger, I started researching the possibilities of growing herbs for the extraction of essential oils.
I soon after built my own distilling unit. For the last two years I have worked with peppermint, spearmint and monarda on approximately 5 acres of land. Most of my production so far has been experimental. I learned by making mistakes, but I think I am ready to open up to new areas, and especially after hearing, seeing, and feeling all this excitement at this conference.
Hey, this may be a turn for me, for a new career. . . I think the future for the herb industry on the prairies is now!
Bonne chance!
Organic Production of Herbs
Carol Husband
Husband's Foods, Wawota, Saskatchewan
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
It sounds so intriguing and sophisticated to be attending a "Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference"! It suggests money, and industry, hi-tech and mad scientists brewing up an unknown cure. Some of you here today will be duly inspired to go home and do some reading about herbs. When you look up some of these so-called exotic herbs in Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Herbs, you will find this interesting excerpt from a description of Deadly Nightshade, (officially called Atropa Belladonna), on page 158.
"During the Middle Ages, men and women believed that deadly nightshade was the favourite plant of the devil. This is not surprising when one considers the stories told of this plant. Belladonna was said to be an ingredient in the refreshments of wild orgies at which women would strip off their clothes, dance, and throw themselves into the arms of eager men. Sorcerers and witches added the juices of this plant to their brews and ointments. Witches rubbed a lotion containing belladonna and aconite into their skin, believing that it helped them to fly. Given the psychological effects of both of these herbs, in a way, it probably did make them fly. Deadly nightshade's toxicity did not go unnoticed either. Men used this herb frequently to kill."
Now, are you motivated enough to learn about herbs?
Our Production Experience
On our farm at Wawota, Saskatchewan, we have trialed many herbs and spices used in the medicinal and condiment trade, and those that we grow successfully include:
| Angelica | Anise | Anise Basil | Applemint | Apples | Bay Laurel | Bayberry |
| Bergamot | Black Cumin | Black Hollyhock | Blessed Thistle | Borage | Burdock | Calendula |
| Caraway | Catnip | Chervil | Chives | Cinnamon Basil | Clove Pink | Comfrey |
| Coriander | Cowslip* | Crabapples | Cranberries | Cumin | Dandelion | Dark Opal Basil |
| Dill | English Lavender | Evening Primrose | Fennel | Fenugreek | Fo-Ti | French Shallot |
| French Tarragon | Garlic | Garlic Chives | German Chamomile | Ginger | Ginger Mint | Goldenseal |
| Grapefruit Mint | Greek Oregano | Hawthorn* | Heartsease | Horse Radish | Hyssop | Lavage |
| Lavender | Lemon Balm | Lemon Basil | Lemon Grass | Lemon Verbena | Licorice | Lime Mint |
| Lobelia | Madder | Mushrooms | Mustard | Orris root | Orange Mint | Pennyroyal |
| Peppermint | Pineapple Mint | Plums | Pulla Chili Pepper | Purple Ruffles Basil | Queen Anne's Lace | Raspberry |
| Red Clover | Rosehips | Rosemary | Sage | Senega* | Sorrel | Southernwood |
| Spearmint | Summer Savory | Stinging Nettle | Strawberry | Sunflower | Sweet Basil | Sweet Cicely |
| Sweetgrass | Sweet Marjoram | Sweet Woodruff | Tansy | Wormwood | Yarrow | Yellow Bedstraw |
* Seed taken from the wild or harvest from the wild
The production varies considerably yearly. Some of these plants are grown in pots, while others are grown in field conditions, mainly according to the market opportunities, market demand, our ambition level in January, and of course, the weather during planting season. Many herbs are grown in plots the width of the swather, and solid seeded. Many other crops are grown in the field in rows, and are row-cultivated several times during the growing season as well as hand-rogued. Drying facilities with elevated drying racks and aeration fans are thermostatically controlled. Storage buildings are on site, as well as cleaners, and a gravity table. A separate house functions as a food processing facility. We employ a number of local students each summer.
Over time, we have come to primarily target culinary herbs, mainly to compliment the other crops that we grow, demand, and because we must draw the line!
Farmers across the prairies are experienced growers, and I will only add a few hints to the incredible wealth of agronomic information that farmers already own.
- I find that freezing seed for a few days before planting helps break dormancy, and improves the germination percentage.
- Deer love evening primrose.
- Some perennials or biennials such as clary sage are not "spring-thaw hardy" where we live, so growing conditions may vary dramatically from one part of the country to the next.
- Try to use naturalized, fresh seed.
- Be careful physically handling seed and crops. Watch for allergies.
- Keep what you plant under control. Your neighbours will appreciate it.
- Keep poisonous plants "out of reach."
Growing Organically
I farm in partnership with my husband John in a mixed farming area in southeast Saskatchewan. The farm was homesteaded in 1900 by his grandfather and was a mixed farm with registered cattle until 1989 when we chose to put some on shares and sell the rest. It was at this point that we decided to farm organically. We had always farmed low-input, rotating land in and out of perennial forage; thus the complete change to zero chemicals and fertilizers was not too drastic. We continue rotating forage on our land; however, we now rent pasture to our neighbours. This is our number one management strategy for weed control and soil fertility maintenance.
Health and environment concerns influenced our decision to pursue the organic route but the major factor in our decision was an economic one, coupled with the opportunities for self-reliance.
Everything on our 11 quarter-section farm is OCIA (Organic Crop Improvement Association) certified organic. Our local organization called OCIA Chapter #1, is a grassroots organization of local organic producers in southeast Saskatchewan providing an exchange of knowledge for organic crop and soil improvement plus certification of members' products as organic. There are eight chapters in Saskatchewan and three in Alberta. OCIA #1 is a chapter member of OCIA International, a major certifying body representing over 8000 farmers globally.
OCIA International is one of the certifying bodies that have acquired the stringent IFOAM Accreditation needed to export into the European countries. IFOAM accreditation (The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements), is a global grassroots organic umbrella organization with members in 91 countries. IFOAM has served the organic community for over 22 years, with memberships from 91 countries and has received NGO recognition from the United Nations. They offer an IFOAM Accreditation Program for the certifying bodies throughout the world.
Organic producers believe that the forces of nature cannot be sustainably controlled and consequently they attempt to produce their crops in an "ethical partnership with nature." Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not allowed. This is an important feature for a medicinal industry testing herbs. Soil health and improvement receive the highest priority.
The growth of OCIA has been phenomenal, with grower membership increases of 60% and corporate member increases of 96% in a 16 month period. Included in the new corporate numbers are some of the giants in the food and grain industry.
Industry standards are ensured by trained third party inspectors for all growing, storage, handling and processing. An essential aspect of organic production is the Audit Control which requires careful records and product lot numbers used by all industry segments. This ensures that a product can be traced back through all handling, even to the field on which it was grown.
Opportunities
- Canada is perceived throughout the world as pristine.
- The loss of the CROW will have minimal effect on organic farmers. Most shipments are FOB farm.
- Ethnic and specialized niche markets offer excellent domestic prospects.
- US organic feed grain markets are developing.
- Organic interest is developing in the rapidly growing Pacific Rim.
- Profit. Growing an organic crop is adding value in the production stage!
- Consumer-driven.
Impediments
- Demand outstripping supplies.
- Government policies i.e. Canadian Wheat Board.
- Under capitalization.
Marketing Herbs
Organic farmers have developed their own markets. Organic products sell almost exclusively into affluent markets. Our main markets are North America and Europe, with developing markets in Japan. We have our own supply-demand situation which can vary somewhat from the conventional. Organic prices can be considerably higher than conventional.
We presently grow a diverse array of crops that are marketed in various ways. Wheat, barley, flax, canola, rye, mustard, lentils, buckwheat, millet, unique lentils and peas, numerous varieties of dry beans (both standard and rare), garbanzo beans, spices, and of course, many different kinds of herbs and spices. Products are sold in packages, bags, or truckloads, either directly to consumers, retailers, brokers or distributors. We very much want to market our own products, or be able to chose our marketing partners.
We blend some of the herbs, and the product most demanded by our customers is called Prairie Herb Mix. The demand for herbs and spices is constantly greater than the supply.
In 1991 we created a private farmers market on our farm. Our advertising has mainly been by word of mouth, and a growing number of customers spend an interesting time browsing through the heritage barn built in 1925. Clientele enjoy fresh herbs and vegetables picked daily. Unique items such as honey, dried flowers, jams, jellies, specialty Swedish items, and pesto, to name a few, are offered by 27 different neighbours and friends! In 1996, we open June 25 daily from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. until Sept. 14, 1996.
We are in the preliminary stage in Western Canada of developing the drug, medicinal, culinary, perfume, aromatherapy, extract, tincture, pesto, and many other industries fuelled by herbs and spices. It may be wise to reflect on the wisdom of this quote from Jane Jacob's book, Cities and the Wealth of Nations.
"[Development] is a process, it is not a collection of capital goods. It cannot be given, it has to be done."
Fenugreek and Borage Research Update
A.E. Slinkard
Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK
and
R. Kulow
BiOriginal Food and Science Corp., Saskatoon, SK
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Fenugreek (Trigonella foernum - graecum) is an annual legume that produces aromatic seeds used as a spice.
The seeds also are a source of diosgenin used in the production of steroids. In addition, extracts of the seed are used for imitation maple syrup flavouring. The foliage makes excellent forage comparable to early-cut alfalfa hay.
Fenugreek is one of the few legumes that retains its endosperm. The endosperm of fenugreek is a gum that surrounds the seed (embryo and cotyledons). It is difficult to separate the endosperm from the seed coat, but it separates readily from the seed. The endosperm contains high amounts of galactomannans which are used as thickening agents in the food industry. Guar gum is the major galactomannan used in the food industry and it consists of 3 molecules of galactose and one molecule of mannose. The galactomannan in fenugreek consists of one molecule of galactose and one molecule of mannose, giving it somewhat different chemical and functional properties than guar gum. Galactommannans in the diet reduce cholesterol and both blood and plasma glucose levels.
Two varieties of fenugreek have been released in Canada: AC Amber by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB and CDC Fiero by the Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan. Both varieties are exclusive releases and are not available to the general public.
The market demand for fenugreek as a spice crop is extremely limited and only about 200 acres (40 ha) were grown in 1996. The use of fenugreek for its other components has not occurred yet due to the difficulty of separating the endosperm from the seed coat and the lack of knowledge about the functional properties and food uses of fenugreek gum. Development of an industry that could economically extract all components of fenugreek seed would result in greatly increased demand and production of fenugreek.
Results of Agronomic Studies
Agronomic studies indicate that fenugreek is best adapted to the Dark Brown soil zone, but fenugreek should not be planted on the lower areas (high soil moisture and high nitrogen) due to its late maturity and indeterminate growth habit. Fenugreek should be seeded in early May on lighter soils and on stubble, all factors designed to promote drought stress and thus earlier maturity. The seedlings have their cotyledons above the soil and may be killed by a severe frost in late May, but even more serious is the severe frost in late August or early September before most of the seed is ripe and dry. The seeds are about half the size of a wheat seed and they should be planted at the rate of 15 to 20 lb/acre (16-22 kg/ha) at a depth not exceeding two inches (5 cm). The desired plant stand is 6 to 12 plants/ft² (66 to 132 plants/m²), with the denser stand resulting in more uniform maturity. Seed placed phosphate fertilizer (20 kg P²O³/ha) often increases seedling vigour and seed yield and hastens maturity.
Results from inoculation of fenugreek with Rhizobium have been inconsistent. Current fenugreek varieties originate primarily from either India or Southwest Asia. The type that is best adapted to western Canada fixes little or no nitrogen when inoculated with the currently available lines of Rhizobium. Thus, at the present time, inoculation of fenugreek is not recommended and low rates of nitrogen may be used (High N rates delay maturity too much).
No herbicides are registered for fenugreek. However, fenugreek has exhibited good tolerance to trifuralin, ethalfluralin (Edge), sethoxydim (Poast), Basagran, Fusion, Hoe-grass, and Venture. Unfortunately, fenugreek has poor crop tolerance to metribuzin (Sencor/Lexone) resulting in a limited post-emergent broadleaf herbicide option. Half-rate of metribuzin will control small plants of wild mustard and stinkweed with some stunting of fenugreek, resulting in delayed maturity.
The pods of fenugreek are up to 15 cm long and do not shatter. The plants may be swatheed when 50 to 75% of the pods have turned brown. Alternatively, the plants may be left to dry down after several severe frosts and then direct combined. If the seeds are the least bit tough (over 14% moisture), they should be dried to 14% or below in an aeration bin. Use of heated air for drying is discouraged as some of the essential oil will be evaporated and lost.
Summary
Research has shown that fenugreek can be successfully grown most years in the Dark Brown soil zone as long as special management practices are used. However, even more critical is the extremely limited market for fenugreek as a spice crop at the present time. Thus, fenugreek should only be grown under contract. Research is continuing on development of the processes required to separate and utilize other components of fenugreek seed (galactomannans, diosgenin) which, if successful, will greatly increase the value, demand, and production of fenugreek in western Canada.
Borage
Borage (Borago officinalis) is an annual flowering plant that is sometimes grown as a "bee plant" in flower gardens as a means of attracting pollinating insects. It is self incompatible (will not set seed with its own pollen) and thus, pollinating insects are required to transfer pollen between different plants. The plant has evolved in a manner that many flowers are produced over a fairly long time and each flower produces an abundant supply of nectar to attract the pollen carrying insects. This results in cross pollination and seed formation.
The resulting seeds are about the size of a wheat kernel and they contain over 30% oil. Borage oil contains about 22% gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) which is used as a health food. GLA has proven useful in treatment of eczema and is reputed to have many other beneficial effects such as reducing cholesterol levels. As a result, the demand for borage oil has increased in recent years.
Borage has been produced on an average of about 2000 acres (400 ha) for the past five years. However, borage is essentially a wild plant and this presents many problems in commercial production. The most serious production problem is the indeterminate flowering habit and seed shattering. The seeds are mature and shattering occurs about three weeks after pollination. Thus the plant continues to flower as the mature seeds shatter and fall on the ground. An average crop often produces about 400 lbs of seed per acre, but about 320 lbs ends up on the ground and only 80 lbs is actually harvested. Several successful producers have developed innovative techniques whereby they have harvested as much as 150 lbs per acre in some years.
Results of Agronomic Studies
Borage oil with GLA levels greater than 20% commands a premium. Early research showed that GLA concentration in borage oil increased when mean daily temperatures were low the last ten days prior to swathing.
This resulted in the general recommendation that borage should not be seeded prior to the first week of June. This provided for some pre-seeding weed control by cultivation, but more importantly, these late-seeded borage plants were blooming profusely and filling their seed during the cooler days of late August and early September. This resulted in higher levels of GLA and then the borage crop could be swathed about September 10 or immediately after the first hard frost, whichever came first.
The seeding rate is about 15 lb per acre (16 kg/ha) and the seed should be seeded firmly into moisture, as deep as 3 inches (7.5 cm), if necessary. The seedling is vigorous and emerges rapidly. It forms a basal rosette and has a growth habit similar to canola.
Weeds are a problem if they become competitive before the shoot starts elongating. No herbicides are registered for use in borage. Borage has good crop tolerance to most grass herbicides, such as Poast, Fusion, Hoe-Grass, Venture and Assure. Borage has poor crop tolerance to all broadleaf herbicides. MCPA at 0.14 kg a.i. per ha stunted the borage, but it recovered. This treatment controlled tiny seedlings of wild mustard and stinkweed. Volunteer borage also presents a weed problem. The heavy shatter loss results in a stand too thick to keep for seed production and some seeds are germinating all summer long whenever it rains. The best control of volunteer borage is to plant a competitive crop like barley and spray it with Banvel or a Banvel-2, 4-D mixture.
Honey bees at a density of one to two hives per acre are required to pollinate the borage crop. A small isolated field near the woods may be able to rely on native pollinators, but normally honey bee colonies must be brought in and rented. Late-seeded borage begins flowering about the time canola and sweet clover finish flowering and thus borage can be used to extend the duration of high honey production right up to the first severe frost.
In some years populations of larvae of the painted lady butterfly build up and eat the flower buds and growing points of the borage plant, preventing further growth. As soon as the borage plant starts sending up shoots, the field should be monitored at least twice a week to see if the larvae are starting to eat the buds. If very many plants are damaged, the field should be sprayed immediately with an effective insecticide or with the proper strain of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
Harvesting must be done in a manner to minimize shattering losses. Swathing should be done right after a light rain or a heavy dew while the foliage is still wet. The large hollow succulent stems require a long time to dry down, during which time most of the remaining seed falls to the ground. Accordingly, the swath is allowed to dry only long enough to force the wet stems through the combine. The seed shatters out and is easily kept separate. However, some green material may be retained with the seed and this will cause spoilage if ti is not dried promptly to less than 10% moisture. Recleaning may be necessary to prevent heating of trashy seed lots unless the moisture content can be reduced to 9% or below.
Breeding Research A mutation breeding program has been initiated to increase the oil concentration in the seed and/or the concentration of GLA in the oil. A non-destructive test on individual seeds has been developed using a nuclear magnetic resonance technique. Selections have been made and a bulk planting will be made in 1996 to test both the selection technique and the success of the breeding program.
Summary A package of agronomic practices has been developed for successful production of borage. The problem of heavy shattering losses has not been overcome and it likely will not be. The effectiveness of the breeding program will be determined during the summer of 1996. The market for borage oil is somewhat limited, but could increase markedly if major gains are made in either percent oil or percent GLA or both. Until then, acreage of borage will not increase markedly. Thus, borage should only be grown under contract.
Greenhouse Production of Medicinal Plants: Opportunities for Diversification
Dr. Mohyuddin Mirza, Greenhouse Crop Specialist
Crop Diversification Centre North
Edmonton, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
The interest in the production of medicinal herbs in Alberta has increased during the past few years. Field production of some plants of medicinal value is being undertaken right across the province. Large varieties of herbs are grown like Echinacea, goldenseal, wild ginger and different types of mints. There is practically no information available from the commercial production of medicinal plants greenhouses. Many bedding plants growers do grow herbs in pots for sale. For example one grower grew the following herbs for direct sales to people.
| Herbs | Quantities | Herbs | Quantities |
| Alfalfa | 50 packs of 4 plants | Lovage | 90 pots of 2 plants |
| Arnica (American) | 90 pots of 1 plant | Madder | 26 pots of 1 plant |
| Blessed Thistle | 150 pots of 1 plant | Milk Thistle | 65 pots of 1 plant |
| Broadleaf Dock | 100 pots of 1 plant | Mountain Mint | 100 pots of 2 plants |
| Chamomile (German) | 50 packs of 4 plants | Mullein | 150 pots of 1 plant |
| Chicory (wild) | 70 pots of 2 plants | Red Clover | 36 packs of 6 plants |
| Clary Sage | 140 pots of 1 plant | Scullcap | 24 pots of 1 plant |
| Coltsfoot | 50 pots of 1 plant | Sheep Sorrel | 60 pots of 3 plants |
| Ephedra | 25 pots of 1 plant | Tansy | 100 pots of 2 plants |
| Feverfew (wild) | 100 pots of 2 plants | Tansy (large) | 100 pots of 2 plants |
| Gravel Root | 50 pots of 1 plant | Valerian | 130 pots of 1 plant |
| Lemon Balm | 100 pots of 3 plants | Yarrow | 140 packs of 3 plants |
| Lobelia | 100 pots of 2 plants | Wormwood | 40 pots of 1 plant |
| Lobelia (Great) | 150 pots of 1 plant | Tobacco | 150 pots of 1 plant |
It is interesting to note what is being imported into Alberta. Looking through the yellow pages, I found 30 companies which import herbs in different forms varying from dried powder to liquid extracts. Homoeopathic preparations are being imported from within Canada, France and Germany. Other companies import from Ontario, British Columbia, California and China. China was mentioned by at least 10 companies.
Two companies mentioned that they export dry herbs and liquid herbal extracts to China and other countries. India and Pakistan were mentioned as sources of import by two companies.
Medicinal herbs are utilized in the form of leaves, flowers, dried root, alcoholic extracts and other parts of plants. A sample of herbal teas from a health food store in Edmonton revealed the following products:
| Alfalfa leaf (Medicago sativa) | Burdock root (Arctium lappa) |
| Catnip (Nepeta cataria) | Chickweed (Stellaria media) |
| Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) | Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) |
| Fennel seed (Foeniculum vulgare) | Fenugreek seed (Trigonella foenum graecum) |
| Ginger root (Zingiber officinale) | Horsetail (Equisetum pellester) |
| Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) | Nettle (Urdica dioica) |
| Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) | Sarsaparilla root (Smilax medica) |
| Senna leaf (Cassia angustifolia) | Uva Ursi (Arctostaphylos uva ursi) |
| Valerian root (Valerian officinalis) | Wild Cherry Bark (Prunus virginiana) |
| White Oak Bark (Quercus alba) | Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) |
In a homoeopathic store I found the following mother tinctures. Mother tinctures consist of alcoholic extracts of various plant parts or whole plants:
| Aconite | Arnica | Baptisia | Calendula |
| Chamomile | Cardus marinus | Chelidonium | Crategus |
| Dandelion | Echinacea | Hydrastatis | Hypericum |
| Sarsaparilla | Symphytum | Urtica urens | Valerian |
Another area where plants are being used for different medicinal purposes is called Gemmotherapy. In this case, young tender buds of plants are macerated in glycerine and used for different medicinal purposes. I found 36 different types of plant extracts being used in this therapy. Here is the list for your consideration:
Abies pectinata
(silver fir) | Acer compestre
(hedge maple) | Aesculus hippocastanum
(horse chestnut) | Alnus glutinosa
(black elder) |
Alnus incana
(white elder) | Ampelopsis weitchi
(Boston ivy) | Betula pubescens
(hairy birch) | Carpinus betulus
(horn bean) |
Castanea vesca
(Spanish chestnut) | Cedrus libani
(Lebanon cedar) | Crataegus oxyacantha
(hawthorn) | Fagus sylvatica
(common beech) |
Ficus carica
(common fig) | Fraxinus excelsior
(European ash) | Juglans regia
(European walnut) | Juniperus communis
(common juniper) |
Lonicera nigra
(black honey suckle) | Olea europaea
(common olive) | Pinus mugo
(mugo pine) | Populus nigra
(black poplar) |
Prunus dulcis
(sweet almond) | Quercus pedonculata
(English oak) | Ribes nigrum
(European black currant) | Rosa canina
(dog rose) |
Rosemarinus officinalis
(rosemary) | Rubus laciniatus
(common black berry) | Rubus idaeus
(red raspberry) | Secale cereale
(common rye) |
Syringa vulgaris
(common lilac) | Tilia tomentosa
(silver linden) | Ulmus compestris
(European elm) | Vaccinium vitis idaea
(cranberry) |
Viburnum lantana
(wayfaring tree) | Viscum album
(mistletoe) | Vitis vinifera
(vine grape) | Zea mais
(corn) |
The above information shows what is available and what can be grown in greenhouses. Under greenhouse conditions climate is controlled, therefore, it is possible to produce top quality medicinal plants and much higher yields can be obtained.
Production Guidelines for Leafy Herbs
Let us look at several plants which are used as bedding out plants. We have not looked closely at their medicinal properties. They are grown for a specific market and I believe there is an opportunity to grow and sell for a different market.
Calendula officinalis is a common bedding plant which you find in many greenhouses. There are 3,000 seeds per ounce and the price in 1995 was $55.90. It takes 10 to 14 days to germinate at 21°C and a mature plant with flower is ready in 10 to 12 weeks. Florets and the central portion of flower are used for tincture. Combined with Arnica and Zinc oxide it is reported to be a good ointment for skin conditions. Leaves can be used for teas. The plant can be used year round using some artificial light in winter and early spring. As a bedding plant, it brings in a gross revenue of between 5 and 6 dollars. If the flowers are harvested, processed and sold the potential gross revenue can be doubled. The question is how can we improve the quality? Several greenhouse production management practices can be used to improve its quality. Growing the plant slowly at a cooler temperature, using nitrate nitrogen instead of ammonium based nitrogen, higher calcium and magnesium and using biological controls if need arises are a few of the practices which can be used. This plant is well adopted to culture in soil-less growing medium, rockwool and water culture.
Let me deal with some general concepts for growing medicinal plants in greenhouses. At this time I would like to focus on plants where above ground parts are used.
Germination and Handling of Young Plants
Most of these plants are easy to germinate, unless there are specific cooling requirements like in the case of perennials like Echinacea. Germination temperature inside the growing medium should be between 20 to 25°C. Good information on germination temperatures is available in many seed catalogues. Once 50 to 70% of the seeds have germinated, remove them from the heating bench to a well-lighted area and drop the temperature by 2 to 3°C to harden them off before transplanting.
If you are bringing in plugs, then unpack them at arrival. Don't leave them in the packing containers too long because of ethylene accumulation. The biggest problem you will face is the presence of insects like whiteflies, thrips and spider mites. Examine the plants carefully. Look at the undersides of the leaves for any eggs or silvery areas or other signs of insect infestations. The starting plants should be absolutely clean because we don't like to use chemicals on medicinal plants. Firstly, there are not many insecticides registered for use on medicinal plants and secondly, your customers don't want plants which have been sprayed with chemicals. That is why I am stressing the importance of absolutely insect-free plants to start with.
Don't buy plant material from sources which cannot guarantee clean material. Examine for the sign of diseases as well. Roots should look reasonably white. Lower leaves should not be yellow and chlorotic. Look at the base of the stem. If there is any browning and blackening that is the sign of diseases and such plants should be discarded.
It is a good practice to "dunk" the cuttings or plugs in 0.5% solution of organic dormant oil. Soak for a few minutes and then take them out for planting. We are researching the use of hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate for this and other purposes. Because we are dealing with many different species of medicinal plants, it will be a good idea to check for any possible phytotoxicity. Treat a few plants before you treat the entire shipment.
Choosing a Growing Medium
Most of the medicinal plants will grow in normally used greenhouse growing media. Such media have good growth characteristics like air porosity, water holding capacity and drainage. These media are based on peat moss mixed with vermiculite and/or perlite. If you are growing for an organic market, then check with the persons involved as to specific requirements. You may have to use field soil which has been free of chemicals for a certain period of time. Following are the contacts for the four organic certifying bodies in Alberta. You may like to contact them for requirements on organic farming.
Allen Graff
Biological Food Producers Association
Box 876, Vulcan, AB
T0L 2B0
Phone: 780-485-6493
Irene Mihailuk
Organic Crop Improvement Association #1
Box 1209
Athabasca, AB
T9S 2B1
Phone: 780-675-5478
Marina Buchan
Peace River Organic Producers Association
Box 61
Silver Valley, AB
T0H 3E0
Phone: 780-351-2115
Fax: 780-351-3769
Gert Lund
Sustainable Agriculture Association
RR#3, Site 18, Box 7
Innisfail, AB
Phone: 403-227-2693
Organic versus non-organic is an interesting area of discussion and understanding. This is how I understand. Medicinal plants, like other plants require sixteen elements to grow. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum and chloride. Silicon is present in the tissue of many plants but as to its being essential or not, scientists are not sure.
Carbon is taken as carbon dioxide from the air. Hydrogen and oxygen come from water and the rest of the elements are absorbed from the soil or the growing medium. Plants absorb all those elements in a certain form.
For example, nitrogen is absorbed as nitrate or ammonium or in urea form. Only legumes have the indirect capability of fixing elemental nitrogen from the air through the help of nitrogen fixing bacteria present in the root zone. Similarly, other elements are absorbed in a certain form and once they are taken inside the plant they are processed in the same way, irrespective of the fact where they came from. So you supplied manure to your medicinal plants and they absorbed nitrate nitrogen from there and once inside the plant, it got converted to ammonium nitrogen and then to urea nitrogen and then combined with carbon became the building block for proteins. You supplied the plants with nitrogen from calcium nitrate, it will follow through the same cycle.
As far as pesticides and insecticides are concerned, I fully agree that we should avoid their use and find out alternative methods to control insects and diseases. Fertilizer parts need to be looked at more closely.
Biodynamic farming should be of interest to many growers whereby the concept is to use properly composted materials to provide nutrients for plant growth. The component of spirituality is very strong in biodynamic farming.
Thus, you have a choice of different growing media. You may wish to choose which suits your needs and requirements. The advantage of greenhouse production is that you can control weeds easily. You can provide extra carbon dioxide to plants. You can control watering and fertilization and thus you can improve the quality to a great extent.
Temperature Requirements
Most of the medicinal plants require a dominance of vegetative growth in the early stages of development. It means that the plant should produce more leaves and shoots and not flowers. If the object is to sell leaves and shoots, then we have to keep the plants in a vegetative phase as long as possible. The plant can be made to set flowers by subjecting it to water or nutrient stresses.
Temperature management is critical in this regard. By growing the medicinal plants on a lower 24 hours average temperature, we can make them produce more leaves and also help to set flower buds in some cases. Warmer 24 hours temperature can make plants to grow rapidly and produce more fruit, if that is what is required. Here are some temperature recommendations:
Early establishment phase when more roots are desirable then maintain a growing medium temperature of between 20 to 22°C and air temperature of around 20°C. You should also be familiar with how plants respond to differences in the day and night temperatures. If the medicinal plants are grown cooler at night and warmer during the day, then they will stretch and elongate. If they are grown at the same day and night temperature, then the internodes will be smaller and the plant will give the appearance of being more compact. If you grow them at cooler day temperature when compared to night temperature, then the size of internodes will be further reduced. This response in medicinal plants is reversible. If you find out that plants are too compact, then you will increase the day temperature and plants will respond quickly to that change.
Thus, in early stages of growth, focus on a warm growing medium temperature. Once the roots are well established and plants have grown enough shoots and leaves, then drop the temperature by 2 to 3 degrees centigrade. When light is very high in summer, then the day temperature will go higher than recommended. The plants will go faster in summer. You may have to use some sort of cooling system in your greenhouses.
Fertilizer Management
In the early stages of plant development the requirement of phosphorus is high. Inorganic sources of phosphorus are fertilizers like mono ammonium phosphate (11-51-0), mono potassium phosphate (0-53-34), or ready made fertilizers like 10-52-10 and 9-45-15. Organic growers should consider using bone meal or fish meal or other sources of phosphate.
When plants are entering a rapid growth phase, then use higher nitrogen in relation to potassium and make sure that enough calcium and magnesium is also made available through organic or inorganic sources. The principle is that higher nitrogen than potassium will make the plants grow faster and vegetative. Higher potassium than nitrogen will make the plants more flavourful and compact. Potassium requirements of individual herbs have not been studied in detail like it was done with the greenhouse vegetables, but the principle is the same. Higher potassium will contribute towards a better quality of the plant and will help with disease tolerance. I will suggest the following nutrient ranges to be supplied to achieve a good growth of medicinal plants:
| Nutrient | Amount
mg/litre | Nutrient | Amount
mg/litre |
| Nitrogen | 100 - 200 | Iron | 1.5 - 3.0 |
| Phosphorus | 25 - 50 | Manganese | 0.5 - 1.0 |
| Potassium | 150 - 400 | Copper | 0.1 - 0.2 |
| Calcium | 100 - 200 | Zinc | 0.1 - 0.15 |
| Magnesium | 50 - 70 | Boron | 0.2 - 0.12 |
| Sulfur | 60 - 200 | Molybdenum | 0.1 - 0.12 |
I cannot find much information on the nutrient levels in the leaves or roots to be used as guidelines for plant management. Research has to be done in this area.
Insect and Disease Management
There are not any chemicals which are specifically registered for use on medicinal plants grown in greenhouses. The demand is for the products grown without the use of pesticides and insecticides, therefore alternative methods of disease and insect control must be investigated. Some of the steps you can take are:
- Start with absolutely clean plant material.
- Monitor the insect and diseases on a very alert basis. Small populations of insects can be eliminated by physical removal.
- Restricted entry will be very helpful.
- Use dormant oil to control insects.
- We are researching the use of hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate to control insects and diseases.
- Consider the use of biological controls wherever feasible.
Production of Root Herbs in Greenhouses
Medicinal plants like echinacea and goldenseal appear to have rapidly developing markets. At this time the major production is in the fields. To my knowledge there is one grower in Alberta who has been experimenting with echinacea in a totally enclosed situation using artificial lights and carbon dioxide enrichment. He has been experimenting with manure teas and other organic based fertilizers, but the information is not public knowledge. We, therefore, have to generate information in this direction.
Growing of plants like echinacea is a challenge because of their very specific requirements. An excellent publication on the field production of echinacea is available from the Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
We have started researching the production of echinacea in greenhouses. We plan to use different growing media including hydroponics methods. We plan to establish nutrient requirements of this plant and would like to know how we can "motivate" the plant to transfer more food into the roots.
We are hopeful that we can reduce the production time from four years in the field to one year in the greenhouse.
Promising Medicinal Plants for the Prairies
D. V. C. Awang, Ph.D., F.C.I.C.,
MediPlant Natural Products Consulting Services
Ottawa, Ontario
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
The burgeoning worldwide interest and commerce in medicinal plants reflect a recognition of the validity of many of the traditional claims for the value of natural products in health care.
The relatively lower incidence of adverse reaction to plant preparations, as compared to modern conventional pharmaceuticals, coupled with their reduced cost, is encouraging both the consuming public and national health care institutions to consider plant medicine as alternatives to synthetic drugs. Also, established pharmaceutical firms, recognizing the potential of natural products to provide novel drugs, as well as templates for development of improved versions for treatment of refractory human illnesses, have been acquiring outright, or securing substantial interests, in a great number of herbal companies.
All of these trends have created an increased demand for herbal raw material and prompted tremendous interest in cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants. These plants are also viewed as attractive alternatives to traditional crops whose value has declined, either because of supply/demand pressure or loss of popularity due to other factors, such as the health concerns respecting tobacco.
The greatest market for herbal medicines, in terms of both manufacture and consumption, is in Europe, followed by Asia and Japan, each at roughly one-third of European annual sales and surprisingly fairly closely (in view of the disallowance of medicinal claims) the United States.
There is a remarkably close agreement among published lists of the most popular herbal medicines worldwide, even given traditional regional preferences and particularly the pronounced Western bias against scientific and clinical evidence deriving from the less technologically advanced countries.
In a Health Foods Business article published in May 1995, retailers and distributors in the health food industry identified the top twelve "dietary supplement" sellers in the United States. Six of these were plant-derived preparations: echinacea, garlic, pycnogenol, goldenseal, saw palmetto and ginkgo. Pycnogenol, reported as an anti-oxidant, is an extract of the bark of a pine tree growing on the coast of southern France, while saw palmetto, widely used is treating symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a tropical palm. Ginkgo, the so-called "living fossil"--the oldest living plant, grows universally but its current demand is amply satisfied by cultivation in Germany where an extract of its leaves is the most prescribed herbal mono-preparation; ginkgo is used to treat problems of cerebral and peripheral insufficiency associated with aging, such as short-term memory loss, tinnitus and intermittent claudication.
The United States Pharmacopeial Convention has selected six botanicals or development of monographs in a newly established program to general standards and analytical methodology for medicinal plant products. Ginger and valerian are the first items being addressed, the rest being feverfew, garlic, ginkgo and ginseng.
While so-called "American" ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is very widely cultivated in British Columbia and Ontario (as well as Wisconsin) there may be an opportunity for development of special strains --perhaps involving selection from wild populations--with particular pharmacological properties, which could also be used to prepare standardized extracts.
In addition to feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) and valerian (Valeriana officinalis), which grows wild in many Canadian locations, there are several other popular plants with promising medicinal potential which could likely be profitable cultivated in western Canada. Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) often formulated in combination with echinacea, would probable thrive in co-cultivation with ginseng. The misnomeric "Siberian ginseng" or eleuthero (Eleutherococcus senticosus) --Araliaceous, but not a true seng since it does not have a fleshy root--is in increasing demand for its reputed anti-stress and pro-stamina effects. Russian athletes and cosmonauts were reported to have consumed eleuthero regularly and the plant was even credited for Russian success at the 1980 Olympics 4 A native of Asia, eleuthero has been approved for Canadian cultivation by Agriculture Canada.
Other prominent candidates for Canadian cultivation might be:
Angelica (Angelica archangelica, A. sinensis- Dong Quai)
Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus)
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)
Chamomile (Matricaria recutita)
Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.)
Horsechestnut (Aeculus hippocastanum)
Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis)
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, G. uralensis)
Nettle (Urtica dioica)
St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum)
Cultivation of all these medicinal plants ought to be informed by knowledge of their chemistry and pharmacology. Effort should be expended towards development of highly active strains and reduced toxicity, where applicable. Drug Identification Numbers (DIN) have been awarded in Canada for preparations containing most plants here mentioned, e.g., valerian as a sedative/sleep aid, often in association with other claimed complementary botanicals such as lemon balm, hops (Humulus lupulus) and passion flower (Passiflora incarnata); valerian is a component of over 200 European products. Almost all of the DIN-bearing products are in the over-the-counter (OTC) Traditional Herbal Medicine (THE) category, appropriate for treatment of self-diagnosable, self-treatable, self-limiting conditions. The only modern herbal recognized by a DIN for a specific therapeutic application is feverfew "to help prevent recurring migraine headaches" or "to help reduce the severity and/or frequency of migraine headaches, " the basic criteria established for acceptance are i) certification of botanical identity and ii) a minimum level of 0.2% parthenolide, the presumed active principle, in the dried leaves of Tanacetum parthenium.
The therapeutic claim is supported by two orthodox clinical trials conducted in the 1980s in the United Kingdom, while the herb's safety is granted on the basis of its traditional use without significant record of adverse health effects.
Herbs for your Health
Astragulus, Huang Qi
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Leguminosae
Astragulus membranaceus, A. americana
Description: The root is cylindrical, with some Branches, 30-90 cm long and 1-3.5 cm in diameter. Externally pale brownish-yellow or pale brown, with irregular, longitudinal wrinkles or furrows. Not easily fractured, it is hard and tenacious, with a strongly fibrous fracture. Odour weak; taste slightly sweet and slightly bean-like on chewing. (PPRC 109)
It is felt by many that the North American species A. americanus is really the same species. It has the same chemical markers via TLC (Kline).
Part Used: Root
Constituents: It contains a large group of glycosides Astagalosides I-VII, isoastragaloside I-II, soyasaponin I, linoleic acid, linoleinic acid, beta-sitosterol, betain, choline as well as pigment and sugars. (hsu 522, bensky 319)
Mode of action: As a Qi tonic it has been shown to increase body weight and endurance. It is considered an adaptogen, especially for the immune system, considered a deeper immune enhance than Echinacea. It has been shown to have a diuretic effect, still being effective in the kidney and is thus specific for nephritis. As a cardiotonic it increases the contraction of normal hearts and even more effective as a tonic in cases exhausted by fatigue or poison. It has a vasodilation effect improving circulation to the skin. Its antibacterial effect has been shown effective Shigella dysenteriae, Streptococcus haemolyticus. Diplococcus pneumonia and staphylococcus aureus. It is hypotensive, lowering blood pressure probably due to its vasodilation action. Astragalus protect the liver from toxic exposure (carbon tetra-chloride). It has a positive effect on regulating blood glucose levels. From an energetic point of view, it tonifies spleen and augments Qi, as seen in lack of appetite, fatigue and diarrhea, prolapsed rectum, abdomina bleeding. It is used to tonify the lung and therefore used for frequent colds or shortness of breath. Tonifies qi and blood for post partum fever and blood deficiency.
Therapeutic action: Tonic. Adaptogen, diuretic, cardiotonic, and anti-biotic.
Energetic: sweet, slightly warm entering Heart, Lung, Spleen.
Dosage: 9-30 g
Toxicity: In extensive tests there has been found no toxicity to this herb even when taken in large quantities.
Contraindications: because this herb raises the yang, tonifies the qi, and stabilizes the exterior, it should not be used in case of excessive exterior, qi stagnation, damp obstruction, food stagnation or yin deficiency with heat signs.
Herbs for your Health - Echinacea
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Compositae
Echinacea angustifolia, Echinacea purpurea, E. Pallida and related spp.
Synonyms: Purple Cone Flower, Cone Flower, black Sampson, Snakeroot.
Description: Echinacea is a herbaceous plant that grows from a thick, black pungent root. The stem is slender but sometimes stout, .75 m tall, with bristly hairs. The leaves have three permanent veins, varying from broad lanceolate to lanceolinear, becoming very slender at the petiole. The flower disk starts off concave but becomes ovoid with the receptacle taking on a sharply conical shape. The rays-flowers are narrow, from 1-2 inches in size, coloured rose to purple and rarely white.
Part used: usually the rhizome and root, sometimes herbage.
Constituents: Echinacoside, echinacein, isobutyl amides, echinacin, polyacetylenes, caffeic acid (ester of echinacoside) essential oils, fatty acids, betaine, inulin, trihydroxyphenyl propionic acid, tannins, and Vitamin C. A non-toxic pyrrolizidine (in trace amounts is also found).
Mode of Action: mucopolysaccharide component (echinacin) has a cortisone-like activity which inhibits hyaluronidase enzyme that is associated with inflammation and swelling. This is accomplished by maintaining the structure and integrity of collagen matrix in connective tissue and ground substance. Increases the cell growth of fibroblasts, activates macrophages, regenerates new tissue and eliminates infectious organisms.
Inulin, activates the alternative complement pathway thus promoting chemotaxis of neutrophils, monocytes and eosinophils, solubization of viruses, and bacteriolysis. Polysaccharides have also shown significant immunostimulatory effects: stimulating T-lymphocytes, the production of interferon and secretion of lymphokines.
Echinacea mediates antibiotic and antineoplastic activity with significant inhibition of the growth of Walker carcinosarcoma and lymphocytic leukemia.
Antiviral effect of Echinacea is due to an interferon-like activity against viruses such as influenza, herpes and vesicular stomatitis virus. Blocking of the receptor site of the virus on the surface of the cell membranes is the mechanism. Inhibition of hyaluronidase or related to T-cell excitation and the transcription of viral RNA is also suspected.
Antibacterial properties are relatively mild but have proven effective against Staphylococcus aureus, and Proteus vulgaris, and Corynebacterium diphtheria.
Therapeutic action: alternative, diaphoretic, sialagogue, immune system stimulant.
Energetics: Holmes lists Echinacea as having pungent, salty and a cool, dry property with secondary qualities of stimulating, restoring, and dissolving. Echinacea enters the Lung and Colon meridians, influences the blood, lymph, plasma, skin, stomach, and urogenital organs. The organism is air, warmth and fluid. Tierra lists Echinacea as bitter, pungent and cool, entering the Lung, Stomach and Liver meridians.
Folklore: This herb has been used heavily in North America by Western herbalists since the time of Thomson who recognized it as an alternative and used it for its blood cleansing quality. This attribute was discovered via the Indians who used it for snake bikes. Over this period of time it has been used for infections, boils, syphilis and as an antiseptic.
Well over a dozen Native American tribes, primarily in the Great Plains area, are known to have used Echinacea spp for medicinal purposes. No clear pattern emerges of the type of usage but analgesis, antispasmodic and antidote uses are noted.
Dosage:
| Powder | 15-30 grains - three to six times daily |
| Tincture | 30-60 drops |
| Fluid extract | 1/2 - 1 tsp - three to six times daily. |
Toxicity: No toxicity was found in the literature reviewed.
Regulatory Status:
| UK | General Sales List 1, Table A BHP 1990 |
| Germany | Standardzulassung No. 1279.99.99 12.3.86 pub 1986 |
Herbs for your Health - Ginseng
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Arliaceae Panax quinquefolium P. Ginseng and other Panax sp.
Description: small shrub grows up to .3 m, with smooth serrated leaflets in 5's; flowers are yellowish, fruit scarlet, root is 5-14 cm long, with a central tap root with many secondary branched brownish-yellow rootlets.
Macroscopically: Fisiform or cylindrical roots, sometimes branched, 5-20 cm long up to 2.5 cm in diameter at crown, with one or more stem scars; pale yellow or cream surface, smooth in upper part with fine longitudinal ridges and root scars in lower parts; some fine rootlets may be attached; fractures short; fracture surface light yellowish-brown, exhibiting a ring of secretory canals in the cortex and a distinct brownish-yellow cambium.
Microscopic: Traces of cork composed of thin walled polygonal cells but mostly phelloderm on outside; wide cortex of parenchymatous cells with numerous secretory canals arranged in concentric zones; parenchymatous xylem with non-lignified tracheids and slightly lignified vessels with spiral and reticulate thickening, isolated or in small groups; small granules of starch 0.5 - 1.0 um in dia. In all parenchymatous cells and occasional clusters crystals of calcium oxalate in the cells of central region.
Odor and taste: Slightly aromatic odor; initially sweet taste, becoming bitter.
Assays: to 0.1 g of powser add 0.1 ml concentrated sulfuric acid; red color is produced in 1-2 min; TLC/HPLC for total and single ginsenosides. Ginseng stored for 1200 yrs. Has shown same saponin content as present day ginseng.
Part used: mostly the root, sometimes the leaves.
Constituents: root contains a group of saponin complexes, often split into two groups:
- Rb1 group (protopanaxadiol: Rb1, Rb2, Rc and Rd)
and
- Rg1 group (propanaxatriol: Rg1, Re, Rf, and Rg2).
It also contains acetylene panaxynol (C17H26O), a 1,9-cis-hepta-decadiene-4,6-diyn-3-ol, beta-element, betasistostrol, 0.05% essential oils, panacene (C125H24) a pyrrolidone, 5-peptides sugars, 23.3% disaccharides (saccharose and maltose), small amounts of pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamins B1, B2, B12, nicotinic acid, choline, citric, fumaric, malic, maleic, panaxic and tartaric acids and traces of manganese, vanadium, copper, cobalt, sulphur and arsenic.
The total amount of ginsenosides in the lateral roots are often more than double that in the root hairs and more than double that in the main root.
Mode of Action: panacea: due to its broad spectrum use and its long history, a great Qi tonic, it is not considered a perfect herb. There are differences between the ginsengs, and many contraindications.
Rg1 and Rb1 are diametrically opposed to each other. Chinese ginseng contains much higher amounts of Rg1 than the American ginseng does, while there is more Rb1 in the American ginseng.
Rb1 group (highest in American ginseng, alcohol soluble extract); central nervous system depressant (anticonvulsant, analgesic, tranquilizing), hypotensive, anti-stress (protecting gastrointestinal tract from ulcers), antipsychotic (inhibition of conditioned avoidance response), weak anti-inflammatory, antipyretic (fever-reducing) facilitates small intestine motility, increases liver cholestrol synthesis, increases RNA activity in rat's liver. (Rc has opposite effect).
Rg1 group (highest in Chinese ginseng, water soluble extract); slight central nervous system stimulant (activates brain activity), hypertensive, anti-fatigue, enhances mental acuity and intellectual preformance, anabolic (stimulates DNA, protein and lipid synthesis).
Chinese ginseng has more of a tonic or adaptogenic effect than the American ginseng. It would also appear, since many of these factors are opposite, that the two ginsengs might cancel each other out. This is not true, these opposing properties tend to balance each other, not combat each other.
Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng): has a tonic effect, acting on the pituitary and stimulating the adrenals, giving it its adaptogen effect. By hastening the nervous reflexes, this herb increases analytical and overall mental performance, while diminishing fatigue. It is useful for insomnia. An extract, causes the heart to contract more strongly, with a hypertensive action. Lung tonic used for wheezing, shortness of breath and labored breathing. Saponin hormonal-like structure has a stimulatory action on sexual function in both males and females. By working synergistically with nsulin, ginseng has a blood sugar reducing property. By increasing aldosterone this ginseng has an antidiuretic action, decrasing urine excretion. Protein synthesis is increased as well as appetite, while lowering cholesterol. Ginseng has been known to decrease the shock of allergies.
Wild mountain roots (Ye Shan Shen) are considered the best, but are very expensive. Most ginseng is cultivated. Cured in rock candy, the "white roots" (Bai Shen) is used for Deficient Qi and Yin patterns. Small rootlets are usually used to make a beverage called "Root whiskey" (Shen Xxu) Cultivated roots not cured are (Sheng Shai Shen) or "Dried Roots" and are used to nourish yin similar to American ginseng. Steamed roots turn red and become warmer in nature, called "Red Roots" (Hong Shen) and are used for deficient Qi and yang patterns.
American ginseng (P. Quinquefolium): acts to tranquilize the brain, while moderately stimulating the vital organs. It also helps to relieve fatigue.
An excellent review of material available on ginseng can be found in Stephen Fulder's book The Tao of Medicine.
Therapeutic action: adaptogen, nervine, tonic, aphrodisiac.
Energetics:
Chinese: Chinese ginseng is sweet, slightly bitter and warm property; entering the Lund and Spleen meridians. A powerful tonic of original Qi, expels "evil Qi, supplements lung yin (vital essence), while it benefits yin and generates fluid. American ginseng is bitter, sweet, mild and cooling properties, entering the Lung, Stomach and Kidneys. It nourishes Yin, cleanses heat, depresses fire.
Tierra lists Chinese ginseng as sweet, slightly bitter, slightly war; entering the Spleen, Lung, and Heart. He list American ginseng as sweet, bitter and neutral affecting the Lung and Spleen meridians.
Holmes lists American ginseng as a bit bitter, sweet, neutral and dry; with secondary qualities of restoring and relaxing. It entrs the Lung and Spleen meridians; influencing the lungs, stomach, intestines, adrenals and nerves. Its organism is air.
Folklore: Ginseng has an extensive written and traditional history, promarily because of its fame in the Orient for esxtending lifespan. Panax quinquefolium and Panax trifolium make an appearance in the ethnobotanical records of roughly a dozen Northeastern Amerindian tribes. No particular pattern of usage is evident.
Dosage: 1 - 9 grams
Toxicity: numerous studies have confirmed that ginseng is non-toxic, however excessive use can cause hormone irre\gularieties, insomnia and hypertension. It is contraindicated in pregnancy when there is acute illness or with the use of other stimulants such as coffee. One case of consumption of 500 ml was fatal.
Chinese contrindications: Chinese: yin deficiency with ehat signs, heat excess or absence of significant Qi, hypertension (with ascendant Liver Yang), very high blood pressure (180/110). Over dose cause rash pruritus, vertigo, headache, fever. Antidote is mung bean soup. It should not be takeven with Fly squirrel feces (Wu ling zhi) or Veratum spp. (Li lu). Turnip will reduce the effectiveness of ginsenosides.
American ginseng: damp cold stomach and incompatible with Veratum spp. (Li lu).
Herbs for your Health - Goldenseal Root
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family Ranunculaceae
Hydrastis canadensis
Synonyms: Yellow root, yellow Puccoon, Wild Curcuma, Turmeric Root
Description: This perennial bush is native to the moist woods and damp meadows of Eastern North America. It has a rough, wrinkled yellow root with a distinctive odour and taste. In the past, people altered other roots to look like Goldenseal, due to the high price it commands. It is hard to be fooled once you know its appearance. The stem is simple, hairy, eight to twenty inches tall, and has three to five lobed, dark green leaves that become four to ten inches broad in the summer. The small, solitary flower appears in May and June and is white or rose. The characteristic berries are small and resemble raspberries.
Part Used: root, sometimes leaves.
Constituents: The most important principles of goldenseal are a group of isoquinoline alkaloids consisting mainly of hydrastine (1.5 - 4%), berberastine (2 - 3%) and berberine (0.5 - 6%), lesser amounts of canadine, candaline, and related alkaloids. Hydrastine occurs in both free and combined forms. Other constituents include meconin, chlorogenic acid, and lipids with 75% unsaturated and 25% saturated fatty acids; resin, starch, sugar, and a small amount of volatile oil.
Mode of action: Goldenseal is a herb specific for the mucous membranes (often called "the King of the
Mucous Membranes"). It is used for its astringent and tonic action, for congestion and chronic inflammation of the respiratory and urogenital tracts, catarrhal affliction of the nose, and chronic gastritis and enteritis. It has been used for catarrh of the bladder, hepatic congestion, and eye inflammation. Goldenseal is specifically used for inflammation of the vagina, uterus, and urethra. The important action of Goldenseal is on the mucous membranes of the intestine and stomach. Goldenseal has been found beneficial in cases of chronic constipation, haemorrhoids, and anal fissures. Hydrastis is valuable for disorders of the uterus as it causes "uterine contraction and is used in menorrhagia and dysmenorrhea."
It has been considered useful for arresting bleeding from the uterus and for profuse menstruation. Goldenseal can be beneficial for relieving menstrual pain. The British Pharmaceutical Codex 1934 states the Hydrastis is useful in controlling uterine hemorrhage, in inflammation of the uterine mucosa and in leucorrhea.
Berberine has shown activity against a wide range of microbes (see barberry). As an immunostimulator it increases blood supply to the spleen, activates macrophages, and has tumor inhibitory action.
Externally, Goldenseal is valuable for chronic inflammation of mucous membranes, cracks and fissures of the nipples, indolent ulcers, and as a lotion to stop profuse sweating. Goldenseal or its alkaloids are useful as an eyewash.
Extractum Hydrastis Liquidum has been given for chronic constipation with hypochlorhydria.
Therapeutic action: Tonic, alterative, aperient, cholagogue.
Energetics: Holmes lists goldenseal as bitter and astringent, being cold with warming potential, and dry. The secondary qualities are decongesting, astringing, restoring, stimulating and stabilizing movement. Goldenseal enters the Spleen, Liver, Stomach, Colon, Chong and Ren meridians; influencing stomach, intestines, lungs, heart, reproductive organs, bladder, kidneys, liver, gall bladder and veins. The organism is fluid, Tri dosa increases Vayu, while decreasing Kapha and Pitta.
Folklore: Shown to the first settlers of North America by the natives, this herb has been used as a stomach tonic specific to controlling the mucous membranes. It was also used for sore eyes and for general ulceration. It was also considered a major remedy for various forms of catarrh. Specific uses are dyspepsia, gastric catarrh, loss of appetite and liver troubles. It has been used in many patent medicines (OTC - over the counter) throughout North America and Europe for over a century.
This herb comes to us from Native North Americans. It was popular among herbalists but not well known commercially until the early 1800's. Subsequently it was heavily used, from the Eclectic physicians up to the present day (both in Europe and America). The Cherokee, Iroquois and Micmac are known to have used goldenseal. The Iroquois made especially broad use of the plant.
Dosage:
Average Dose - 0.6 - 2.6 grams
Extract BP - 0.03 - 0.12 gram
Tincture BP - 2.0 - 2.0 ml.
Goldenseal has been officially recognized by most Western pharmacopeias.
Toxicity: In very large doses Hydrastis may cause convulsions and over-stimulation of the nervous system. Long term use of high dosages have caused leucocyte buildup. Signs of toxicity take the form of irritation of the mouth and throat, diarrhea and vomiting. Doses over 2 grams per day should not be taken during pregnancy or in cases of hypertension. Extended consumption of large amounts of this herb have been shown to lower B vitamin absorption and utilization. Ulceration can occur internally and externally with severe overdosing.
Herbs for your Health - Licorice
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Fabaceae
Glycyrrhiza glabra and uralensis
Description: Perennial herb, stem .6-1.5 m tall rising from a thick rhizome; leaves are pinnate with 4-7 pairs of leaflets, ovate, entire, smooth, glutinous beneath, dark green. The flower is yellowish-white or purplish born in pulse shaped racemes: fruit is a legume, 2.5 cm long, brown, ovate, flat. The root (rhizome) is basically cylindrical, usually coming in pieces 14-20 cm long and 5 - 20 mm thick; yellowish-brown to dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled; inner yellow, radiate; fracture coarsely, fibrous.
Macroscopic: The root consists of long cylindrical pieces varying in thickness from 0.5 - 2.5 cm (up to 1 meter in length) which are longitudinally wrinkled, covered with a grayish-brown warty cork, breaking with fibrous fractures. Transverse section show a bark (1.6th the diameter of the root thickness, underneath the cork of grayish-yellow color of wood, and in its inner layer radiately striate from long, narrow, and somewhat wavy bast wedges. The woody meditullium consist of though fibrovascular tissue, appearing porous from the large vessels, and from narrow wedges separated from one another by still narrow medullary rays. The rhizome has the same appearance and structure in addition to a thin central pith.
Microscopic: thick-walled, lignified fibres in groups of 10-50 from both phloem and xylem, often accompanied by rows of small, rectangular cells each containing a prism of calcium oxalate: the large vessels of the xylem bearing closely arranged bordered pits; numerous starch grains, mostly about 10 microns in dia.: in the unpeeled herb, the brownish, polygonal tabular cork cells.
Taste and odor: the smell is characteristic with a strongly sweet (glycrrhizin is 50 times sweeter than sucrose) somewhat acrid taste free from bitterness.
Assays: TLC/HPLC
Part Used: root, stolons, rhizomes
Constituents: The major constituent is 5 - 24 % glycrrhizin (a triterpene glycoside). Upon hydrolysis glycyrrhin yields glycrrhizic acid and two molecules of glucuronic acid. Other constituents are flavonoid, starch (2-20%), 3 - 14% sugar (glucose and sucrose), polysaccharides, lignin, 2-4% asparagine, sterols, a complex volatile oil, and a trace of tannin.
Mode of action: Ulcers: shown to produce relief in ulcer patients, traditionally a methanol extract. A modern preparation with glycyrrhizinic acid removed is now preferred, as this avoids possible problems with high blood pressure, a recorded effect of the acid.
Anti-inflammatory activities of glycyrrhizin contribute to the action on ulcers but other ingredients are proved to inhibit gastric secretions. The methanol extract inhibits the liberation of gastrin from pyloric mucosa. Because licorice preparation has been proven not to inhibit acetylcholine action and does not inhibit spontaneous motility of the stomach, it is more useful than chemicals such as atropine.
Demulcent: It has a soothing and expectorant effect on the tracheal mucous secretions and for dyspepsia and gastric area.
Estrogenic: in laboratory animals (with possible other steroidal activities), to have mineralocortocoid properties (causing sodium retention and potassium loss). Inhibits tumors (due to glycyrrhizinic acid salts) anti-trichomonads, antitussive (comparable to codeine, due to 18-beta-glycyrhinic acid), anti-hepatotoxic, anticonvulsive and antibacterial. Useful in Addison's disease due to mineral balancing of the mineralocortocoids.
Anti-inflammatory effect is due to glycyrrhizic acid. It has some interaction with the corticoid mechanism. It is presumed that it does not produce direct hormonal activity but may react indirectly to enhance the activity of both minerals and glucocortocoids in inhibiting the metabolic activity in the liver. In China, it is often used as a first aid remedy for cuts, burns, as an antidote to many types of poisoning and to build muscle and bones.
Pseudoalderosterone activity due to the dlycerrhetinic acid and can produce hypertension, hypokalemia, sodium and water retention, low plasma renin activity, and suppressed urine and serum aldosterone levels. (have to consume over 12 grams of raw herb to get this effect.)
Detoxifying (used for thousand of years by the Chinese) shown to counteract toxins related to diphtheria, tetanus and tetrodotoxin. It is shown to be anti-hepatotoxic.
Interferon can be stimulated by licorice.
Anti-viral: glycyrrhetic acid and its derivatives are successful in treating Herpes simplex 1, both reducing pain and reoccurrence. In clinical practice the glycyrrhetinic acid has been found fairly effective in treating these viruses, but extremely effective in treating hives. It has also been shown to inhibit HIV.
Therapeutic action: Demulcent, expectorant, emollient, stomachic, anti-inflammatory, mildly laxative and flavoring.
Energetics: Chinese (raw) sweet and neutral; (toasted) sweet and warm. Licorice enters all twelve primary meridians, especially the Spleen and Lung; tonifies the Spleen, replenishes Qi, clears heat, removes toxins, moistens lungs, controls coughs, harmonizes the stomach and spleen, harmonizes all drugs, soothes spasms and acts as the great antidote.
Ayurvedic: Rasa - mahura; Guna - guru (heavy) snigdha (pacifies vata); Veerya - sheeta, Vipak -madur.
Action: Vat pitta samak, daha, samak, shsura bardhak, kapha nisarak, vatanuloman, kantaya, raket sthambk, jawar nasak, jiviniya, sandhaniya, rasayan, balya.
Folklore: This herb is the most heavily used in China. In turn, one might claim that it is the number one "drug" in the world. The use of this herb goes back centuries in both Western and Eastern cultures. Traditionally, we find it used for almost everything, some of the most common uses are: for ulcers, sore throats, insomnia, abdominal pain, bronchitis, blood cleanser, in cough medicines for sores, herpes, abscesses, food poisoning, for treatment of cancer in many cultures and to support the adrenal glands when under stress."
There is plenty of evidence of this herb's usage over the last 2,000 years in Europe. Examples include German herbals (1264) Gerard (1597) Hill (1751) and throughout the Eclectic era. It is found in Chinese literature in the Divine Husbandman's Classic of the Materia Medica (220 B.C.) Licorice is also extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine.
Roughly half a dozen Western tribes are know to have made use of Glycyrrhiza lepidota for earaches, toothaches, and as a pediatric febrifuge.
Dosage
: Powdered root - 1/2 - 1 dram
Fluid extract - 1 - 4 drams
Solid extract - 1 dram
Toxicity: Licorice is a very safe herb in moderate doses. In large doses it can cause sodium retention and potassium depletion and therefore can lead to hypertension, weight gain and edema. It is not recommended for patients with heart or blood pressure problems.
Counterindicated in Germany for liver inflammation or cirrhosis of the liver or potassium deficiency in the blood. Glycrrhetinic acid has been shown to reduce activity of the thyroid and reduce basal metabolic rate over extended use. Chinese contraindications: excess dampness, nausea, or vomiting. Considered incompatible with Euphorbia kansui root (gan sui) E pekinesic root (da ji) Daphne genkwa flowers (yuan hua) Sagassum pallidum herb (hai zao) Polygala tenuifolia herb (yuan zhi).
Herbs for your Health - Milk Thistle
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family : Compositae
Silybum marianum
Description: A stout thistle, growing 4 to 16 feet tall, with large prickly glossy green leaves with milk-white veins. The bright purple flower head is at the end of the stalks and has abundant spines.
Part Used: Ripe seeds.
Constituents: The major group of flavonoid (flavoavonligins) are called silymarin (silybin, silydianin and silychristin).
Mode of action: Silymarin increases protein synthesis in liver cells, by increasing the activity of robosomal RNA via the nucleolar polymerase A. Part of silybin molecule is steroidal in nature. This steroidal part induces new DNA and ribosomal RNA synthesis. Silymarin also induces an alteration of liver cellular membranes to stop absorption of may toxins. One of the studies showed that an extract of milk thistle almost completely counteracted liver toxicity by carbon tetracholride (a common liver toxicity model).
It even stops the toxicity of Amanita mushroom poisoning (more effectively than any other known substance). The normal death rate from consumption of Amanita is over 30% whereas not one person died out of sixty treated with silybin (some as late as 24 - 36 hours after consumption.). Milk thistle extract has been shown to reduce the effect of many other toxins on the liver. One fairly significant one is cadmium, which frequently causes problems. There is literature to suggest that milk thistle extract also protects the kidneys, brain and other tissue from toxic chemicals.
Damage caused by alcohol toxicity, especially cirrhosis of the liver, can be at least partially reversed by milk thistle extract.
Milk thistle extract has been found to inhibit lipoxygenase from forming leukotrienes from polyunsaturated fatty acids in the liver. These leukotrienes are known to be one of the most damaging chemicals found in man. There is probably significant antioxidant and free radical thistle because of its bioflavonoid content.
Clinically, milk thistle extract causes significant reversal in symptoms of both acute and chronic liver problems, ranging from viral hepatitis to cirrhosis.
Therapeutic action: Hepatic tonic, promotes lactation, demulcent.
Energetics: Holmes lists milk thistle as pungent, bitter, warm and dry; with secondary stimulating, decongesting, astringing, restoring, dissolving, and softening qualities. Milk thistle enters the Liver, Heart, Chong, and Ren meridians; influencing liver, kidney, heart, lung bladder anduterus. The organism is warmth, and fluid.
Folklore: We can find records of the seeds of thistle being used by the Greek herbalist Dioscorides to cure the poison of snake bite. By 1596 Gerard was saying, "My opinion is that this is the best remedy that grows against all melancholy (bile - liver) diseases." Culpepper used it for obstruction of the liver and spleen. The Eclectics of the late 19th and early 20th centuries used it for varicose veins, menstrual problems congestion of liver, kidney and spleen.
Dosage:
Std. Extract of 80% - 3.6, 175 mg capsules daily
Tincture - 5 - 15 drops Three times daily.
Toxicity: Both human and animal studies showed no chronic or acute toxicity even in large doses
Herbs for your Health - Oats
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Graminaceae
Avena Sativa
Synonyms: groats, oatmeal
Part used: seeds, whole plant
Description: This major food plant can be found in many varieties; the flowers form in loose panicles of spikelets, each bearing 3-5 flowers, with lanceolate glumes, the outer one tapering to a fine point, the inner one smaller and cleft in two; stem is smooth growing up 1.4 m.
Constituents: saponin (including avenacoside A and B), alkaloids (indole, gramine, trigoneline and avenine) sterols (avenasterol) flavonoids, silica, calcium, and gluten.
Mode of action: This is one of the classical examples of a food that bridges the "no-man-land" between food and drugs. Its nervine effects have been celebrated in Europe for centuries, especially used for feeding' the nervous system that is under stress. Used for nervous exhaustion, debility and for depression, being both stimulatory and relaxing. It is specific for skin problems due to the silica, but also excels in skin condition associated with stress, such as shingles or other herpes. The tincture is considered a nerve and uterine tonic.
Therapeutic action: Nervine, stimulant, antispasmodic.
Energetic: Sweet, warm (to neutral) moist; secondary nourishing, thickening, restoring, solidifying, relaxing, stimulating; enters the Spleen, Kidney, Chong, & Ren meridians; increase Kapha, decreases Pitta & Vayu.
Folklore: Used for skin preparation as a wash and internally for skin and bones. Oats are used as a base for poultices. Its nervine factors have been considered a perfect sleeping tonic, calming down and nourishing the body.
Dosage: Fluid extract: 10-30 drops.
Toxicity: considering this is a major food crop; it is well known not to have toxicity.
Herbs for your Health - Siberian Ginseng
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Araliaceae
Eleuthrococcus senticosus
Synonyms: Taiga root, Wu jia.
Description: erect herb stands 1.5 - 2.6m high, spiny, covered with light grey or brownish bark; long petioled leaves are palmately compound, 5 elliptic leaflets, and finely serrated margin, with minute spinules along the veins. Found in the Soviet Far East, Korea, China and Japan, north of latitude 38.
Part Used: root rarely leaves and stems.
Constituents: The major chemicals are eleuthrosides A-G (phenyl-propanoid, sterol, lignans, isofraxin, carotenoids and coumarins).
Mode of Action: Increased physical performance in both humans and mice. In hens and piglets, increased growth and survival rate; increased protein anabolism was demonstrated in organ and muscle tissue; increased thermostability upon heat exposure in humans. Increased catecholamine concentrations in the adrenals and brain of rats after oral consumption of the extract suggest an explanation for stress tolerance.
Immunostimulating activity: Polysaccharides increased phagocytosis in vitro/vivo.
Radiation: double the survival time during chronic irradiation of up to 7,000 rads.
Sexual Stress: eleuthrosides B, D, and E were shown to aid recovery after sexual stress; strengthening seminal vessels and prostates in mice, activation rate of steroidal receptors was higher in the uterus (including response toestrogen).
Therapeutic action: adaptogen.
Energetics: (Wu jia) acrid, sweet and bitter; influencing the Liver and Kidney.
Folklore: This plant was used as a fold remedy for heart ailments, insomnia, hemiplegia, hypertension and rheumatism. It has also been employed to restore vigor, memory, good appetite and longevity. In China, it is seen as a tool to lower cholesterol, cure impotence and increase blood oxygen.
Dosage: Powder - 3 - 15 gm; Tincture: 10 - 50 drops
Toxicity: There is no known toxic effect to Siberian ginseng.
Herbs for your Health - Sweet Annie, Quin Hao
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Family: Compositae Artemisia annua
Description: The dried aerial part, colected in the autumn of this annual. Stem cylindrical, branched. Beaves alternate dark green or brownish green. Odour characteristic aromatic; taste bitter.
Parts Used: Herb
Constituents: abrotamine, bourrbonene, farnesyl acetate, camphene, carophyllene, humulene, cadinene, pinene, limonene, cincole, artemisia ketone, thujone, copaanene, cadinene, bet carotene. (Bensky 93)
Mode of action: Antimalarial, antibiotic, Clears summer heatin expecially fevers, headaches, dizziness. Cools blood and stops bleeding.
Therapeutic action: Anti-malarial, antibiotic, anthelmintic.
Energetic: bitter, cold, enters Kidney, Liver, Gallbladder meridienas
Dosage: 3 - 9 g but up to 24 g
Herbs for your Health - Valerian
Terry Willard, Ph.D., President
Wild Rose College of Natural Healing (Calgary)
and Coastal Mountain College of Healing Arts (Vancouver)
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Valeriana officinales
Synonyms: Stewell, Capon's Tail, All-heal.
Description: There are many species in the Valeriana genus. The conical rootstock or erect rhizome will ofyten develop for several years before the plant sends up a flowering stem. The stem has slender horizontal brances with terminal buds that have aerial shoots or stolons which produce (asexually) new plant roots (like spider plants or strawberries). The main stem attains a height of 3 - 4 feet, is round, hollow, groved and hairy, especially at the base. The inflorescences are terminal with two or more pairs of flowing stems, each pair placed at right angles to those above and below them in cymes. The flowers are pink-blue appearing from June to September. The leaves are arragned in pairs, unieted at the base, with a series of lance-shaped pinnate segments 2 - 3 inches long. The margins have a few coarsely cut teeth.
Part Used: root.
Constituents: The chief chemicals are alkaloids, valerianine and chatarine. Opthers include a group of iridoid compounds called valepotriates (valtrate, valtrate, isovaleroxyhydrin, acevaltrate, vale-chlorine and more), valeric acids, didrovaltrates, valerosedatrum and volatile oils (bornyl acetate, isovalerate), camphene, pinene, caffeic acid, beta-sitosterol, tannin and gum.
Mode of Action: This plant is well know as a CNS-depressant. The active ingredient is a matter of some debate. This group of chemicals is not usually present in significant amounts in the crude herb or tincture which clinically also shows a sedative effect. It might be the volatile oils and valeric acid that have the sedating effect, while the valepotriates have a depressant effect on the autonomic system. It can be said that this herb is antispasmodic and equalizing (sedative in state of agitation and stimulant in fatigue). Valerian is also hyupotensive, antibacterial, especially against Gram-positive bacteria (due to its alkaloids), antidiuretic, hepatic (protesting the liver from necrosis). The iridoid compound is very attractive to cats. They obtain a euphoric "high" from it.
Therapeutic action: Antispasmodic, stimulant, tonic, nervine, carminative.
Energetics: Ayurvedic: (related species V. jatamansi) Rasa - tikta (bitter), katu (pungent), madhur, kasaya (astringent); Guna - laghu (light), snigdha (pacifies vata), sar; Veerya - ushna (hot); Vipak - katu (pungent). Action: Tridosha har, bran ropan, mastiskya blaya, dipan, shul prasaman, sarak, hiridyotegek, swashar, vajikaran, pitta samak, jawarghana, chachyusya.
Holmes lists valerian as a bit sweet, bitter and pungent, warm with some cooling potential, dry properties. The secondary qualities are restoring, stimulating, relaxing and decongesting. The meridians entered are Heart, Pericardium, Lung, and Spleen; influencing the heart, arterial circulation, nerves, brain, spine, lings, uterus, kidney, bladder, stomach and pancreas. The organism is air and fluid.
Tierra lists valerian as spicy, bitter and warm; influencing the Liver and Heart.
Folklore: Valerian has marked influence on the cerebrospinal system and is employed as a sedative of the higher nerve centre for afflications such as St. Vitus's Dance, nervous unrest, neuralgic pain, epileptic fits, hysteria (especially female), restlessness, and wakefulness.
Though small ordianry doses of valerian root are good, large doses taken over a period of time cause headache, heaviness, and stupour.
It is suggested in cases of heart papitation because it slows down the heart rate while increasing the strength of the beats. It also is used for circulatory problems as well as to stimulate the stomach and intestinal motility. Valerian is often used for hypochondria. It has an unpleasant odour which is often mased by essence of aniseed.
It can be found in Western herbology since prehistoric times. Some early herbals, e.g. Moore (1564) and Gerard (1597), make clear note of it It also appears in Willis (1681), Lewis (1769), Motherby (1785), Bigelow (1822), Griffith (1847) and had a prominient place in the practices of the Eclectics at the turn of the century.
Over half a dozen Valeriana species are known to have been used by the Native of North America. The plant was used to treat colds, cuts, inflamation, headaches and constipation,.
Dosage:
| Decoction: | 3oz., 3 times daily |
| Tincture: | 1/2 - 1 tsp., 3 times daily |
| Fluid Extract: | 1/2 tsp., 3 times daily |
| Oil: | 5 drops, 3 times daily |
| Powder: | 10 - 15 grains, 3 times daily. |
Toxicity: This herb is regarded as safe by all scientific studies except one, which found carcinogenic effects of the valepotriates in a test tube. In vivo studies dispute this initial finding. The scale of use of this plant throughout recorded history also suggests that any toxic effect is fairly remote.
Medicinal Properties of Ginseng
Lawrence Wang, Ph.D., FRSC
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Ginseng, Panax ginseng, C.A. MEYER is the root of the Araliaceous plant and is the most famous medicinal herb used in traditional Chinese medicine. It was recorded in the first-ever written documentation of traditional Chinese medicine: "Shen nung ben tsao jing" (The Holy Farmer's Materia Medica) around 25 A.D. as an "imperial" herb because of its non-toxic and rejuvenating properties. Throughout the years, ginseng has been reserved for the exclusive use by the imperial families and the super-rich because of its rarity in nature and its demonstrable efficacy in enhancing health and well-being. The actions of ginseng, according to its traditional use are to "...replenish chi (energy), supplement lung's yin (vital essence), benefit the five viscera (heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys), sooth the soul (mental state), increase wisdom (mental capacity), tonify the heart (against ischemia), enhance virility, and delay aging (Hsu et al., 1986). Interestingly, many of these purported aspects have been verified through modern laboratory and clinical investigations (e.g. see reviews by Chong and Oberholzer, 1988; Liu and Xiao, 1992). With the advent of ginseng farming especially of the North American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, it is now possible for Canadians to easily access the root and to use it as a functional food to enhance health.
The commercially dried four-year old ginseng root typically contains 10% water, 12.2% protein, 70% carbohydrate, 4.2% fiber, 1.0% fat, and 2.6% ash. It also contains small amounts of vitamins A, B-1, B-2, B-6, B-12, C, E, niacin, folic acid, biotin, and panthothenic acid, and various minerals such as calcium, iron, phosphorus, iodine, magnesium, zinc, and copper, and choline (Duke, 1985). The bioactive ingredients are the ginsenosides (about 2.2-5.8% by weight), carbohydrates (polysaccharides), essential oils (about 0.05%), and flavonoids. There are approximately 30 ginsenosides which are tri-terpenoid glycosides of the dammaran series. Quantitatively, they are dominated by the Rb (panaxadiol saponin), Rg (panaxatriol saponin), and Ro (oleanolic acid saponin) series of compounds so named based on their chromatographic behaviour during separation. The amounts of the ginsenosides vary with the age of the root; in Panax ginseng, the 4-5 year roots appear to have the optimal quantities over younger or older roots.
In general terms, ginseng has been used as an anti-aging panacea, a tonic, a prophylactic agent, and a restorative. It is essentially non-toxic if not abused. Of its myriad of effects, ginseng is known to provide resistance to non-specific stress (i.e. an adaptogen; Brekhman and Dardymov, 1969) by activating the pituitary - adrenal axis, improve immunocompetence by enhancing phagocytosis and intracellular killing as well as increasing T3 (total lymphocytes) and T4 (T helper) cells (Scaglione et al., 1990), enhance cardiovascular functions by improving cardiac tolerance to hypoxia and ischemia and minimizes hypertension, stimulate sexual functions (Chang and But, 1986), modulate central nervous system functions including temperament, reflex, and learning and memory (Rosenfel, 1989), regulate blood glucose by exerting either hyper- or hypoglycemic effects, enhance metabolism to facilitate physical exertion (Kirchdorfer, 1985), plus other minor effects such as anti-diuretic, anti-allergic, and radiation protective effects (see reviews by Chang and But, 1986; Liu and Xiao, 1992).
The research presented herein was conducted by the Traditional Medicine Research Program of the University of Alberta. It was a collaboration of four laboratories: Drs. Benishin and Pang from the Department of Physiology, Dr. H.J. Liu from Chemistry, and ourselves from Biological Sciences. The ability of ginseng in enhancing short-term learning and memory was chosen as a functional index for its purported "anti-aging" activity. To provide evidence that can be scrutinized by western pharmacological standards, we chose to investigate single compounds isolated from ginseng which might possess biological activity vs. the alternative of using the tea or crude extracts of ginseng as the test material.
The single compound from the N. American ginseng root and used in our studies was the ginsenoside Rb1 isolated by Dr. H.J. Liu. Male Sprague Dawley rats (300-400 g) were divided into three groups: control, amnesia (induced by scopolamine, a cholinergic blocker at 2mg/kg, i.p., 30 min prior to testing on day 3, see below), and the amnesia (same dose and protocol as above) + Rb1 (5 mg/kg, i.p. daily for 4 days, the last dose at 45 min prior to testing) (see Benishin et al., 1991 for more experimental details). A four-day passive avoidance test involving the avoidance of a shock prod was used to test short-term learning and memory capability. On days one and two, each rat was placed in a Plexiglas box for 15 minutes to familiarize with its "novel" environment. On the third day, the shock prod was introduced through the Plexiglas box wall for the first time. The time lapse before the rat touched the prod was recorded and the rat immediately removed from the Plexiglas box after its first contact with the prod. On the fourth day, the time lapse before the rat touched the prod again (with the shock turned off) was measured. We reasoned that if the rat had learned and memorized from its first contact with the shock prod that the prod was an aversive stimulus it should avoid touching the prod when it was present the second time. This avoidance should then be manifested by the increased time lapse in touching the prod again on day 4. In the control rat, the time lapse was about 30 seconds in the first trial on day 3; this was increased significantly (p1 plus an injection of scopolamine on day 3 did not alter the time lapse on day 3, being about 30 seconds. On day 4, however, the time lapse was about 330 seconds, 10 times longer than the amnesia group (p1 can partially rectify the "memory deficit" induced by a specific, cholinergic toxin (Benishin et al., 1991). In a separate experiment, treatment of Rb1 alone for 4 days showed a slightly longer, but statistically insignificant time lapse on day 4 in comparison with that of the saline-treated controls (Benishin et al., 1991). It may be speculated that had the treatment regimen be extended over a longer duration or the dosage of Rb1 be expanded, there could be a demonstrable significant effect on enhanced learning and memory by Rb1.
To elucidate the possible mechanisms of Rb1 on enhancing short-term learning and memory, the effects of Rb1 on displacement of binding to muscarinic receptors was investigated (Benishin et al., 1991). The binding of ³H-QNB (a muscarinic agonist) to forebrain synaptic membranes was not affected by Rb1 between 1 - 1,000 nmole/l. This indicates that the efficacy of Rb1 in rectifying the scopolamine effect was not through the displacement of scopolamine from the muscarinic receptors. To delineate whether Rb1 may be exerting its effect through the inhibition of acetylcholine esterase (AChE) like many of the clinically used treatments for senile dementia including the Alzheimer type, the brain AChE activity was measured in the presence and absence of Rb1. The results indicated that Rb1 had no effect on brain AChE activity at 100 - 1,000 nmole/l. On the other hand, the release of ³H-ACh from hippocampal slices was significantly stimulated by Rb1 at 10 - 100 nmole/l. Further, this increased release of ACh was calcium independent. Finally, the synaptosomal uptake of choline was significantly enhanced by Rb1 at 100 - 1000 nmole/l (Benishin et al., 1991). Taken together, these studies indicated that the efficacy of Rb1 in enhancing short-term learning and memory includes a direct stimulation of synaptosomal uptake of the precursor for ACh synthesis and the release of ACh via a novel, heretofore unknown mechanism. These enhanced brain ACh metabolism by Rb1 in partially eradicating memory deficit may explain why ginseng has been used in Chinese traditional medicine as a panacea against aging.
It is clear from our studies that North American ginseng root does contain bioactive ingredients (i.e. Rb1) which can exert specific pharmacological actions on specific brain neurons and organelles involved in neurophysiological and cognitive functions. This verification provides but one more piece of scientific evidence to the numerous already existing in the open literature. Like the "black-box" approach currently used in modern western medicine, traditional Chinese medicine has long relied on the very same principle concerning the efficacy and safety of a treatment: it is the predictability rather than the molecular mechanism of action that determines whether a treatment is useful or not. The "regal" status of ginseng as a panacea, tonic, prophylactic, and restorative in Chinese medicine has been achieved not because of the sophisticated laboratory studies like ours but based on its thousands of years of clinical trial and error and found to be predictably useful. Modern laboratory studies will undoubtedly continue to provide the finer and finer "black boxes" on ginseng's bioactive ingredients and how they affect cellular metabolism specifically. These will be intellectually gratifying and will further enrich the 2000 plus years of human experience on ginseng use. But in the longer term, it is the functional predictability of ginseng or its constituents that can be objectively evaluated and reported like those of Kirchdorfer (1985) and Rosenfel (1989) amongst others that will likely inspire the wider use of ginseng as a medicinal herb in the promotion of human health and well-being in North America.
Health Canada Regulations Regarding Aromatic and Medicinal Plants
Ron Reinhold, Drug and Environmental Health Inspector
Health Canada
Burnaby, British Columbia
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Good morning fellow participants! Health Canada is very pleased to be invited here today to this conference to present our regulations regarding medicinal herbs.
We know that Health Canada hasn't always been held in the highest regard in this topic area, but today I hope to try to impress you with our new approach toward dealing with this area. I know I speak for my colleagues when I say that we are looking for workable solutions to our regulatory challenges in this area - not confrontations!
Always keep in mind that the general mandate of the Health Protection Branch is to ensure that there is no undue health risk to the public from our food or drug products. Safe food and drug products are obviously our most important concern.
As well, Health Canada has a role in ensuring that food and drug products are not promoted, or sold in a misleading or fraudulent manner. In this area, we're concerned about wild unsubstantiated serious disease claims, about products which are sub-potent relative to their label claim, and we want people to be assured that they are getting the herb that they are supposed to be getting. Finally, we also have a role in ensuring that all our clients (people who sell food and drug products) are treated equally, such that complying clients are not at a disadvantage in the marketplace.
Classification of Medicinal Herbs
In Canada, herbs are classified either as foods or drugs - there are only two possibilities. This classification is important to know, because the regulations are different for foods as they are for drugs.
The criteria we use to determine the classification of the product is the definition of a drug from the Food and Drug Act.
Drug includes any substance or mixture of substances manufactured, sold or represented for use in:
- the diagnosis, treatment, mitigation or prevention of a disease, disorder, abnormal physical state, or the symptoms thereof, in man or animal.
- trestoring, correcting or modifying organic functions in man or animal.
To paraphrase the definition, we can say that there are two factors that make a drug a drug - a medical claim, as described in (a), or a pharmacological effect, as described in (b), or both.
Note that there is no distinction between a natural product, and a synthetic product manufactured in a facility. A drug is classified as a drug always, because of either a medical claim, or a pharmacological effect, or both.
Status Manual
Even with an understanding of the definition of a drug, you may still not be totally clear whether a certain herb is considered a drug, largely because you may not be sure if Health Canada considers the herb to have a pharmacological effect. With this in mind, we have a document called the Status Manual, which classes various herbs into either a food or drug category.
For example, ginseng is considered a food if no medical claims are made for the product. Obviously, if claims are made for the product, the product becomes a drug by definition.
The Status Manual is a bit out of date, (Feb. 1993), and some recent status changes have not been incorporated into the manual. We are working on getting the manual updated.
The Manual is available to yourself via a diskette from either our office in Burnaby, or we have a few copies of the diskette available at our display booth.
Food Products
If Health Canada considers the product you are wishing to market to be a food product, then you may need to deal with the Health Canada Food Inspection Program for compositional inquiries. There are District Offices in Calgary, and Edmonton.
Health Protection Branch
Northern Alberta District Office
Canada Place
840 - 9700 Jasper Avenue
Edmonton, Alberta, T5J 4C3
1-780-495-2626
1-780-495-2624 (Fax)
Health Protection Branch
Southern Alberta District Office
#282 - 220 4th Street SW
Calgary, Alberta, T2G 4X3
1-403-292-4650
1-403-292-4644 (Fax)
For labelling inquiries you will need to deal with the Agri-Food Division of Agriculture Canada.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Edmonton District Office
11713 - 82nd Street
Edmonton, Alberta, T5B 2V9
1-780-495-3333
1-780-495-3359 (Fax)
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Calgary District Office
#102 - 3650 - 36th Street NW
Calgary, Alberta, T2L 2L1
1-403-289-7736
1-403-221-3296 (Fax)
Drug Products
If the product you are wishing to market is considered to be a drug product, such as feverfew, then you will have to obtain a Drug Identification Number, (DIN). The DIN is an eight digit number which Health Canada issues to products which are approved for sale in Canada.
To obtain a DIN, you must fill out a Drug Submission Application, which is sent to Ottawa, and the application is subsequently reviewed for acceptability by our new Drug Assessment Bureau (an amalgamation of the former Bureau of Non Prescription Drugs and the former Bureau of Human Prescription Drugs).
Cost Recovery
As I'm sure you are all aware, the government is now in the position of requesting fees for various government services. There is now a basic fee for evaluating Drug Submission Applications ($720 for a basic Traditional Herbal Medicine Drug Submission), as well as a yearly licence fee ($500 per product for products which sell in excess of $20,000 per year; $50 per product for products which sell less than $20,000 per year).
Obviously, cost recovery is not the most popular topic, but keep in mind that these fees are not specific to just the herbal products area. All drug products now are asked to pay these fees. Other areas of HPB, such as medical devices, cosmetics, and product safety in the area of consumer goods, are also looking at various cost recovery programs.
Drug Approval Information
In the past 18 months we have made major changes in this area; vast volumes of information is now available, and by all means, take advantage of the information, so that your DIN applications are not subject to unnecessary delays in getting your products approved.
Part of the renewal brought on by cost recovery are various service standards to the review process of drug submissions. A good, properly filled out application, with no deficiencies in information, now is targeted to have a DIN in 120 days.
Traditional Herbal Guidelines
In October 1995 Health Canada published a handout, specifically tailored to traditional herbal products trying to get approval, called Traditional Herbal Medicine Guidelines. These guidelines have now been supplemented with a further Policy Issues document called Medicinal Herbs In Traditional Herbal Medicines. These handouts describe how to go about filling out a Drug Submission Application for a herbal product. We have the handouts at our display booth.
The handouts also contain a list of herbal references which you should utilize to demonstrate that the claim you are making for your drug product is in fact valid for the dose you are recommending.
Current HPB Policy is that THM Drug Submissions must be substantiated with two herbal references.
Ingredient Policy Statements
Many drug products (all kind of drugs including herbs) now have specific toxicological reviews, along with acceptable and non-acceptable indications, summarized in summary sheets, known as Ingredient Policy Statements. These are extremely useful, because with this information, clients can now potentially tailor applications very specifically to know exactly what the reviewers are looking for.
In the Regional Office we do have this information now, but the document has not been formally completed for public distribution. However, we are working on this as I speak, and we expect to have this full document available to you within the next few months.
In the meantime, you can call either the local District Office of HPB, or the Regional Office, and we can provide you with the information from the IPS to which you require.
If you require herbal information that we don't have on hand, we have an internal mail network, where we can usually find out regulatory information on status, from either Food Directorate, or the Drug Program, within 48 hours.
Herbal Glossary Project
The Product Regulation Division of our Drug Assessment Bureau is undergoing a very exhaustive project to develop a herbal "glossary" consisting of regulatory, status, and toxicological information on over 600 herbs. This glossary will be similar to IPS Information except, it will be specific to herbs [whereas IPS refers to all kinds of drugs]. This glossary would be made available to the public electronically through our external Bulletin Board, which I will discuss in detail momentarily. This is the same information, with a bit of additional non-releasable proprietary information, which Health Canada will have via an internal Bulletin Board. This project is scheduled for completion sometime in late 1996.
Health Information Network Bulletin Board
Health Canada now has a very extensive computer Bulletin Board available through a network called the Health Information Network. This Network has Bulletin Boards from Laboratory Center For Disease Control (LCDC), Medical Devices, Food Directorate, and the Drug Program. The Drug Program in particular has utilized this communication vehicle extensively in the past few years.
On this Bulletin Board you will find labelling guides, policies, publications, and much, much more. The Canadian Drug Information Code book, (CDIC), which details all issued DIN products in Canada, is also available through the Bulletin Board.
If you intend on doing future business with Health Canada in this area, I would highly recommend that you get access to this very worthwhile source of information.
Access is available through either:
1. the Internet address: http://www.hwc.ca:8300
2. through a modem - send your full address by fax to:
Mr. Pete Nilsson, 1-613-941-0825. Mr. Nilsson will send you a disk with a start up kit.
Good Manufacturing Practices
Once your herbal product has a DIN, you will have to manufacture the product to a finished form, usually at a facility. The facility should conform to what we refer to as "Good Manufacturing Practices." There is a 3rd edition of interpretative guidelines about GMP's, which we use to evaluate pharmaceutical drug manufacturers.
Technically speaking, these specific guidelines are not currently applicable to herbal products. However, we do, in a general sense, expect that some of these basic principles should be applied to any drug manufacturer. The parameters we look at include:
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- Packaging Material Testing
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There is a 4th edition of the GMP Guidelines, which should be ready for implementation later this year. The 4th edition will include various appendix on specialized categories of drug products, such as compressed gases, blood products, sterile products, homeopathies, and an appendix specifically on herbal medicines.
The big challenge for the herbal industry with respect to GMP's, will likely be in the area of either raw materials, or finished product testing. There will be an expectation that manufacturers will be able to demonstrate that the herb you have is the right one, and the concentration of active ingredients is appropriate to the label claim. Demonstrating this will be to your benefit from a marketing view, as consumers now are demanding to know more and more about what is in these products, and to be assured of the quality of these products.
Well, in the short time today, I have covered a lot of ground about what Health Canada is about, and where we stand today with respect to herbal products.
I want to re-emphasize that today we in Health Canada, especially in the Drug Program, are constantly talking about things like renewal, openness, efficiency, and dialogue. We want solutions to our regulatory challenges, and the way to accomplish that is through dialogue.
So stop by our booth, and say to hi to myself, and our other representatives, and take advantage of our materials, and information.
If anybody has questions, I'll be pleased to answer them.
Medicinal Herbs Aromas and Flower Essences
Dr. Robert Rogers, Owner
Self Heal Herbal Centre and Scents of Wonder
Edmonton, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Robert Rogers presented a hands-on discussion on the possibilities of medicinal herbs and essential oil production on the prairies.
Most of his talk was gleaned from his self-published book Sundew Moonwort and Other Medicinal Plants of Alberta
Some of the herbs discussed can be grown on the prairie and some are wild and could be wildcrafted.
Some herbs discussed including yarrow, nettles, bilberry, borage, calamus root, red clover, sweet clover, coltsfoot, crampbark, devil's club, wild sarsaparilla, fireweed, goldenrod, horsetail, labrador tea, mullein, green oats, pineapple weed, St. John's wort, wild rose, including rose hip seed oil, shephard's purse, and sundew.
Essential oils were passed around and discussed. White birch, calamus, yarrow, wild rose and wheat absolute made the rounds to blotter paper so that the audience could participate.
Construction of a commercial still in the two to three thousand dollar range was discussed.
Discussion on some potential oil production for the prairies included the above as well as lamb's quarters, honey and beeswax absolute, sweet clover, red clover, hay absolute from ryegrass, couchgrass, cow parsnip, various currants, esp. black buds, elder, ferns, lichens, fleabane, goldenrod, various junipers, wild mint, pearly everlasting, pineapple weed, balsam poplar, rose, spruce, pine, fir, tansy, etc.
Carrier oils were also discussed as a good and inexpensive way to collect the plant oils without high capital costs. Various plants including arnica, mullein, St. John's wort, balsam buds and fireweed were discussed.
Fax: (780)439-9540
Manufacturing and Marketing of Herbal and Environmental Products
Rick Chaba
YU-CCAN Corp.
Sherwood Park, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
At YU-CCAN we manufacture and market a number of herbal and environmental products.
In our Health Food line, we have YU-CCAN Herbal Drink, CANAID Herbal Tea and B-FIT, which are all very beneficial nutritional supplements.
Our products which address environmental concerns are SUPERGRO, which is a stress reducer for stressed soil conditions, and CLEAN N' CLEAR, which addresses a number of concerns all the way from breaking down solids in a hog barn to washing the dishes in your home.
We also carry a line of products called IMPROVE which is for pets and livestock. IMPROVE is completely natural and helps put their body in the proper posture so they can receive the maximum benefit from what they are eating.
AIR-AID is our product line that addresses problems with airborne odours. AIR-AID works like a sponge, absorbing the unwanted odours and gases from the air through negative/positive ion exchange.
Our marketing strategies are very unique, as we use both multi-level marketing and conventional marketing.
YU-CCAN has always maintained the highest standards possible in all aspects of our business. This includes the Quality Control and Production of our entire line of extremely unique products. The standards we have set down are higher than government standards. For example, the standard plate count required for products of nature, set out by the Government of Canada, must not exceed 25,000 CFU/ml. YU-CCAN requires that our products meet a standard of <30 CFU/ml. The total coliforms set out by the Government of Canada is <10MPN/100 ml. (Most possible number). Our standard is <2 MPN/100 ml.
In order to achieve and maintain this level of quality, we have found that there are a number of steps that have to be taken and adhered to. The Quality Control process starts with the raw herbs that we receive. They go through a number of tests before they are used. The first thing in the inspection process is they are tested for smell, taste and colour. The second thing we do is a brew and steep process on each of the herbs individually to ensure that they have the required qualities.
Before every run, all the equipment is sterilized by doing a boil and wash down to ensure that there are no contaminates that might affect the product. We then do a final inspection on the entire line.
Another critical area is the type and content of the water that is used. We use water that is purified through a reverse osmosis procedure. The reverse osmosis unit that we use takes the raw water and runs it through a set of coarse filters. It then goes through a brine solution for softening. In the last step of the reverse osmosis process the water passes through a series of membranes which eliminate the rest of the impurities.
The water is being tested on a continuous basis for total dissolved solids content. The chlorine content is also tested on a regular basis.
When the water is through the process, it is pumped into the Surgical Stainless Steel tanks where the mixing and brewing process takes place. The product runs through a triple screen filtration process, the final one being a 100 micron mesh to remove any remaining solids before it reaches the bottling room.
The bottling room has a positive air flow ventilation system. The people who work in the bottling room have a number of things that they must do before entering the room. They first have to scrub their hands. They also must put on their face masks and bouffant type hair net, along with their white coats. Upon entering the bottle room, they are again required to wash their hands in the sink that is located inside the room. Once this is done, they put on surgical gloves and are now ready to bottle and cap the product.
Once the bottles are capped, they leave the bottling room, where they go through a final inspection for tightness of caps. A shrink seal is then applied before the bottle goes on to be labelled, stamped, and put into cases for shipping.
Before any product is shipped out, samples from each run are sent to the lab where they go through a number of tests to ensure that we are achieving the highest standards. We keep one bottle of the product from every run in our lab for a minimum of one year. The products are all identified by lot number or date for easy identification.
Every run is recorded on a Quality Control Sheet. For every run, the name of the employee responsible for each stage of the production process is recorded--from the making of boxes to the final clean up. When the Lab Tests are completed, the records are attached to the Quality Control Sheet and filed for future reference.
At present, we are working towards obtaining the ISO 9000 classification which is recognized throughout the world as a standard of quality control.
Uses of Wild Plants as Sources of Pharmaceuticals and Industrial Chemicals
Mark Hetherington, Research Scientist FYTOKEM Products Inc. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
The use of plants as a source of useful chemicals dates back as far as human history itself -- nutrients medicinals, adhesives, waterproofing agents, preservatives and much more were all at one time obtained from local plants.
In fact, one could say that plants are excellent "chemical factories" certainly more efficient than our modern laboratories in many respects; they work 24-hour days and the lab director and production mandate of the "plant lab" can be changed merely by genetic manipulation and/or alteration of nutrient supply. The precise control over reaction conditions allow plants to synthesize chemical compounds, called phytochemicals, that can be truly remarkable both in structure and in function.
The plants that we recognize today as modern crops were once wild plants that had proven to be a rich source of a certain chemical substance and underwent systematic improvement and subsequent cultivation.
Canadian prairies have approximately 2000 species of wild plants--about half of which are native, the other half considered to be introduced and naturalized. By definition, these plants grow unattended and sometimes have the ability to knock back competing plants. In addition, stresses put on plants in the wild are often the cause of the production of high levels of desirable phytochemicals. These and other factors point to the strengths of wild plants as chemical sources but also present a challenge when cultivation is considered. Table 1 gives a brief list of some common wild plants.
Table 1. Some Common Native and Introduced Prairie Plants
Native Plants | Introduced Plants |
| Wolf-Willow | Chokecherry | Russian olive | Caragana |
| Locoweed | Lamb's quarters | Alfalfa | Sweet clovers |
| Goldenrods | Pepper grasses | Field dock | Flixweed |
| Canada fleabane | Prairie sunflower | Leafy spurge | Canada thistle |
| Gumweed | Yarrow | Bluebur | Toad-flax |
How are Chemicals Developed from Wild Plants?
Enthnobotanical Clues and/or Physical Indications
Information passed down along geographic, cultural, or family lines, when available, can provide good indications of those local plants that may have important chemical content. This information may be purely speculative such as in the concept of the "doctrine of signatures" where a plant may be considered useful for treating a human organ or disease characteristic simply because it in some way resembles it. It may, however be very specific and firmly entrenched in the pharmacoepia of a particular group and have some clinical or experiential evidence. The most valuable information of this type is when observations and/or applications of a plant agree across several different groups.
Some plants appear to be rich in certain chemical compounds simply because they have a strong smell, sticky texture, or strong taste. For instance, Gumweed, as the name implies, is a very sticky plant with a strong pine-like smell. It has become a commercial rosin source and patents have been issued on the following uses:
- plant hydrocarbon recovery as fuels
- alcohol extract as a freeze stabilizing agent used in latex paint
- acetone extract as an antibiotic used as a food preservative
Preparation of Essential Oils and Whole Plant Extracts
The next step in the process is to prepare the targeted plant for analysis, usually by preparing essential oil whole plant extracts. These are prepared by introducing the ground or chopped plant material into some type of solvent and allowing the chemical constituents to leak out. Usually this is done at elevated temperatures, such as in steam distillation or hot solvent extraction, to increase the rate and efficiency of extraction. The solvent is then removed and recovered and the oil or extracts can then be analysed for various properties and components.
It is important to realize that the extraction process itself can change the nature of the chemical constituents found in the plant. Many compounds are held in bound forms in the plant (i.e. glycosides, etc.) and become free only when acted upon by enzymes released simultaneous to cell lysis during maceration. As well, temperature and solvent stability of the phytochemicals must also be considered in interpreting the results of the next step.
Analysis and Screening of the Extracts
The extracts obtained as described above may then be submitted into screening programs to determine the major or active ingredients. These include:
- anti-microbials, anti-fungals
- insecticidals, biocidals
- anti-cancer, anti-AIDS
- gene and enzyme regulatory action
- cosmetics screening
- chemical screening (chemical classes i.e. alkaloids, sterols)
Once the activity in these various programs is assessed, the chemical compound(s) responsible are then determined.
Separation and Purification of Chemicals
The oil or extract obtained in section 2 above may already be useful end products (i.e. flavorants, aromatic essences, rosins, raw medicinals) and some extracts at this stage have sufficient content of certain chemicals that they can serve as technical grade reagents. If not, then the chemicals of interest must be separated from the rest of the extract and purified. It should be noted that with every stage of purification, there may be a resulting chemical product.
The extract is separated into chemical classes and subclasses generally by performing a series of liquid-liquid extractions. These fractions are then purified by chromatographic techniques and/or further liquid-liquid extractions and subsequent crystallization to yield pure phytochemicals.
Figure 1 shows a summary of the general process scheme for the isolation of a pure phytochemical from plant material:
Growing and Harvesting PLANTS Plant Preparation: Drying and Milling Solvent Extraction Solvent Removal and Recovery PLANT EXTRACTS Separation of Chemical Classes Isolation of Pure Phytochemicals CHEMICAL PRODUCTS Production Economics
The production economics of all processes leading to the end product must be examined in depth. The availability of the raw material through wildcrafting or cultivation, or as a by-product of some other process, and the cost and scale of extraction and purification are important factors which will dictate whether or not the phytochemical will be developed. Obviously, if it cost $100/kg to produce the chemical product and the market price is $101/kg it would make no sense to continue production. However, if a new application or market can be found, the same product may become feasible to produce.
An example of all the points mentioned above is the production of usnic acid from lichens (Usnea spp.). Traditionally, lichens were believed to be useful in the treatment of intestinal disorders. A survey of the literature confirms these reports. We collected some lichens from northern Saskatchewan and obtained an extract. From this extract we obtained a yellow crystalline product in 1% yield in agreement with literature values. Analysis revealed that this indeed was usnic acid and screening programs show this to be a good gram-(+) bactericide. Since our natural gut bacteria is gram-(-), this product is useful in the treatment of the gram-(+) bacteria seen in intestinal disorders such as dysentery.
There is currently a large market for usnic acid in the cosmetics industry as a preservative in lipsticks, etc.,--it also has seen some use in treatment of dysentery. We have a good supply of the raw material which can be harvested ethically and renewably, as well as the ability to produce a quality product on a large scale. Unfortunately, it appears that there is currently a major European supplier which controls the market price at a prohibitively low figure therefore competitive production cannot proceed at this time.
What are the uses for Phytochemicals?
The following is a simple, very brief list of some of the phytochemical products in use today (all plants listed grow or can be grown on the prairies).
| 1. Foods and "Health Food" Supplements | |
Plant
Borage, Evening primrose
Birch bark
Various plants
Jerusalem artichoke | Phytochemical
Gamma-Linolenic acid
Xylobiose
Bioflavonoids
Fructose |
| 2. Curative and Therapeutic Compounds | |
Plant
Wintergreen, willow
Lichens
Purple Coneflower
Foxglove
Seneca root | Phytochemical
Methyl salicylate
Usnic acid
Immunostimulants
Digitoxin
Saponins |
| 3. Cosmetic Ingredients | |
Plant
Horsetail
Oats
Various roots and herbs
Yarrow | Phytochemical
Plant silica
Polyglucans, talc
Essential oils
Azulenes |
| 4. Industrial and Fine Chemicals | |
Plant
Conifers
Sweet clover (or grass)
Mints, Caraway
Crocuses | Phytochemical
Optical grade resins, turpentine
Coumarin
Menthone, Carvone
Colchicine |
How Much in Known About Prairie Plant Chemistry?
One of the first things we did as a company was to find out what was known and what was not known about the chemistry of the plants of the Prairies. To answer this question, we surveyed the main chemical literature from 1907-1993 for each of approximately 1300 plant species listed as native or naturalized to the Prairies. The resulting information has been compiled in a searchable computer database. As well, summary information from the database is being published in a complete volume arranged alphabetically by genus, including:
- Botanical and common names
- Plant habit, size, form and flowering
- Chromosome numbers
- Essential oil composition
- Specific phytomolecules identified
- Number of patents
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- Taxonomic status
- Abundance and distribution
- Extract yields
- Seed oil profile
- Traditional and current uses
- Molecular structures
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In general, the results show that less than 1/3 of the plant species have been examined for chemical content and less than 5% for potential commercial use -- there is a lot yet to learn!
The next step we took was to prepare extracts from 300 of these plants and submit them to the various screening programs mentioned earlier. We are just now receiving very exciting results back from a few of the programs, specifically insecticidal/biocidal and cosmetics screens. FYTOKEM is also currently involved in several other research contracts.
Marketing of Medicinal Plants
Rick Kulow, President
Bioriginal Food & Science Corp.
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
In preparing this presentation, it seemed appropriate to give some background information about myself and about Bioriginal.
My Background
- In college, I worked for an importer of a healthy beverage from Switzerland.
- After graduation, I started my own business distributing snack foods.
- At age 25, I was national sales manager for the largest independent snack manufacturer in the northeast U.S.
- At age 28, I once again had my own importing company--importing specialty sauces. As part of marketing the sauces, I have given cooking demonstrations at Macy's, Bloomingdales, and Hammacher-Schlemmer in New York City.
- For the last 10 years, I have been president of, first, PGE Canada, and now, Bioriginal.
- I have a B.A. from Duke, in Political Science, and MBA from Harvard.
Bioriginal's Background
Bioriginal Food & Science Corp. began in 1985 as PGE Canada. We introduced the production and marketing of borage in North America. In 1993, joint venture partners invested money into PGE Canada, the name was changed to Bioriginal, and I moved to Saskatoon from Boston to run the company.
As mentioned, Bioriginal is a joint venture. Our joint venture partners are:
- Saskatchewan Crown Investments Corp.
- Saskatchewan Wheat Pool
- Nuvotech Ventures International
- PGE Canada
- Organico - the largest organic group in Saskatchewan
Our mission is very simple: To capitalize on opportunities for specialty crops and value-added processing in the medicinal plant area, with an emphasis on crops and products from Western Canada. Background company information:
- In the last four years, sales have grown 800%.
- In the last three years, the number of employees has grown 500%.
- We have been selling to Japan since 1987, and we have just extended our exclusive agreement with our largest customer through December 1999.
- We now sell to every continent but Antarctica, to a variety of industries, including: health food industry, pharmaceutical industry, cosmetic industry, pet/vet industry, and the functional food market in Japan
In other words, we are a small, high-quality company that has been a pioneer in the marketing of Western Canadian medicinal plants. We have taken a plant that no one had heard of 10 years ago, and we are now successfully marketing it around the world. We are rapidly moving into new areas and are actively looking to establish long-term relationships.
What is the Opportunity in Medicinal Plants?
I would like to talk today about how to turn herbal opportunities into dollars. In marketing medicinal plants, I would first like to outline the opportunity, then discuss various market segments that could be targeted, and last, discuss what is required to successfully market to these industries.
Terry Willard noted yesterday that the herbal market grew 33% two years ago, and 25% last year. Dennis Awang noted that it is a multi-billion dollar industry around the world--the size depends on how you define the market. There are three external trends driving this growth in the marketplace, and one trend internal to Western Canada driving the interest in these plants.
The internal trend is the 15-year decline in commodity prices, particularly wheat, that has only recently begun to change. Because of this, growers are moving to "portfolio farming"--growing a range of crops from cash staples such as wheat to high risk/high reward plants like ginseng.
The three external trends include:
1. The aging of the baby boomers
- how it affects those individuals with a high disposable income
- the importance of becoming aware of our mortality
- the existence of a huge global market for products that baby boomers want. In Japan, by the year 2010, 25% will be over age 65.
2. The rising cost of health care
- is resulting in a public outcry by creating pressure for alternatives
- has raised an awareness that nutrition and prevention are less expensive than pharmaceutical drugs and curing
3. Growing acceptance that food does have therapeutic value, due to increased clinical research. For example:
- the role of calcium in the prevention of osteoporosis
- the role of dietary fibre in the prevention of colon cancer
- the role of antioxidants (e.g., Vitamin E, Vitamin C and beta carotene) in the diet
- and the role of essential fatty acids like GLA--There are over 650 citations of peer-reviewed, published articles in our 1996 Annotated Bibliography of GLA Research.
These three external trends are creating a very important change in the medicinal plant market. There is increasing consumer and government demand for quality, safety, and efficacy. Your marketing efforts need to address these issues.
There is also another trend your marketing can play to: a growing preference for plant based, rather than animal or synthetic, products--This is partly due to the generally accurate perception that plant products are healthier and is also based on cruelty-free issues, and others.
Which Market Segments Should be Considered?
These trends have created opportunities in a variety of industries:
Using our experience with borage and GLA as an example, I would like to briefly review these segments:
Background Information on Borage and GLA
- GLA stands for gamma-linolenic acid
- Your body creates GLA through the action of an enzyme--the Delta 6 Desaturase enzyme.
- Your body then, through a metabolic process, turns GLA into a hormone-like substance called prostaglandin.
- Prostaglandin helps regulate normal function in a number of areas, including blood pressure, platelet aggregation, and inflammation modulation.
- If the D6D enzyme does not work properly, the prostaglandins are not made in the body.
The health and nutrition market should probably be the first target for those groups that do not have specific in-house expertise.
- In our experience it has the lowest barriers to entry and the most educated average consumers.
- Quality herbal products are in short supply, so there is currently a good market for single ingredients.
- At some point, like borage, these herbs will become commodities. My guess is three to four years for annual crops, longer for others.
- Profit margins will begin to shrink; at that point blends and special formulation will be a key.
- Western Canada's pristine image could provide a long-term sustainable marketing advantage.
- To maintain margin, "northern vigor" quality could also provide a sustainable quality advantage.
To give you an idea of the product development required to compete in a commodity market, here are examples of some Bioriginal borage products.
- Regular oil - Health Food & Pet/Vet industries
- Powdered oil - Cosmetic/Supplement drinks
- Deodorized oil - Cosmetic/Functional Food/Pharmaceuticals
In the pharmaceutical industry, we are working with a major US company on a bronchial anti-inflammatory that will be introduced in the Fall of 1997. We sell to pharmaceutical companies in 18 kg pails and 55 gallon drums.
Cosmetics:
GLA applied topically:
- reduces inflammation
- helps cells retain moisture, resulting in younger looking skin
Through Canamino, our borage oil is sold to Este‚ Lauder and Cheeseborough Ponds, among other customers.
Pet/Vet
40% of small animal visits to North American vets are for cats and dogs with skin problems. Borage oil/GLA can help in these conditions.
Mass Market Foods:
Borage oil is in the first mass market GLA food I am aware of. In Japan, a company is marketing a cooking oil made from a high oleic safflower/borage oil blend. Our borage is also used in rice preparation products and candies for children in Japan.
Functional Foods:
Japan, due to demographics and health-care costs, is actively looking at a new area called functional foods--foods with medicinal properties.
- GLA is registered for atopic eczema and for lowering cholesterol.
- Claims are only allowed for finished products.
This is a new industry, halfway between pharmaceuticals and mass-market foods.
What is required to market to these segments?
1. Knowledge of your potential accounts
Using the Health and Nutrition industry as an example.
1. Who do you want to sell to?
herbalists? naturopaths? homeopaths? retail stores? mail order? multi-level companies? These are just some of the categories in the health food industry.
2. How do you get their names?
hire the knowledge--ie: a salesperson? partner with someone who has the knowledge? mailing lists? industry directories?
3. How do you contact them?
mailings? phones? faxes? visits? conventions?
The answers will be different to these questions, depending on your products, your resources, and your physical location. What works in Vancouver may not work if you are based in Melfort, or Brandon, or Lethbridge.
2. An in-depth knowledge of buyer requirements--in other words, what do they want?
1. Price?
2. Volume requirements?
3. Specifications--it is not enough to just have the right plant--you must meet specifications?
As the herbal industry moves more and more to standardized extracts, you may find yourself needing to provide information such as standard specification sheets to customers.
3. An adequate supply of raw material.
I believe this is the biggest challenge to Prairie entrepreneurs--there simply is not enough material to sell. In the three to four years it will take to gear up, competition will rise dramatically.
4. The ability to process material to meet buyer requirements. This will include things like:
1. knowing when and what time of day to harvest
2. processing quickly after harvest
3. drying properly
4. cleaning properly
5. clarity and other requirements of certain products
6. meeting some form of G.M.P. standards is also becoming more important-- particularly internationally.
5. The ability to demonstrate that your product meets buyer requirements.
There is currently a major gap in the ability to test accurately for both species and active ingredients.
6. Logistics--the ability to deliver your product on time and in acceptable condition--every time.
7. To be paid on time for your product--and to manage cash flow.
Managing the business side is the key to success in marketing and is often neglected for what appear to be higher priorities. This can be very expensive.
The more you can differentiate yourself from a commodity, the higher your profit margin can be. I have already mentioned blends and product development as one way to accomplish this.
Customer service is another excellent way to accomplish this, particularly if you can legitimately set yourself up as an expert resource. No one should know more about your product and industry than you.
Other ways to differentiate yourself include:
Sales support literature:
- Informs, illustrates, and helps sell your product.
- Demonstrates how you differentiate yourself by accurately stating your advantages.
Clinical research:
- One positive study (or mass media article) can literally mean millions of potential new customers.
Given the rapidly increasing sophistication of all these markets regarding medicinal plants, the reality is that most of us will have to make alliances in order to effectively market to these industries. The working capital, production requirements, and scientific expertise that customers demand will require people to work together. I believe groups that make alliances will emerge as the winners. Part of it is a matter of time--there is simply so much that has to be done that alliances make sense.
My second recommendation is to find a business mentor if business management expertise is not part of your knowledge base. Find someone who has been successful in business and make him/her part of your team, the same way you would look for scientific or other knowledge.
In closing, I would like to make a plea for all of us to work together; the pie is growing rapidly, and if we all come from a win-win position, herbs could be a significant industry in Western Canada within the next 5-10 years.
Herbs, Homeopathy and Health
Arnica
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Arnica montana
Family: Compositeae
Common Names: Arnica flowers, Arnica root, Common arnica, Leopards bane, Mountain arnica Mountain tobacco
Habitat Europe, Russia, Siberia, Canada, and north-western United States; mountain areas and moist upland meadows.
Description
A perennial plant whose brown rootstock produces a slightly hairy, branched stem; the stem can reach 1-2 feet in height. Arnica grows 1-3 pairs of oblong, ovate basal leaves. The upper stem leaves are smaller and sessile; all leaves are bright green and pubescent on the upper surface. The stem terminates by branching into 1-3 peduncles, each bearing a flower which is present from June to August. The flowers are bright yellow and daisy-like, with strongly-scented foliage.
Medicinal Parts: Flower heads - dried
Arnica - Historical Properties & Uses
Arnica is popular abroad for its versatility as a diaphoretic, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, stimulant, vasodilator, and vulnerary. In Germany, for example, arnica is one of the most prescribed herbal remedies for stimulating the immune system. It is seldom used in North America, and indeed has acquired a somewhat unfavourable reputation in the United States, perhaps due to lack of knowledge about its use.
Arnica is used in very dilute solutions: externally, as a salve, tincture or compress to promote healing of wounds, bruises, and irritations; and internally, as an expectorant or as a gargle to soothe inflammations of the throat and mouth. Arnica is also a common homeopathic remedy for multiple sclerosis.
Arnica's main alkaloids resemble the active alkaloids of echinacea, both in structure and in activity.
Arnica - Method of Action
Arnica Has Cardiovascular Action
Arnica has been found to strengthen circulation by stimulating coronary heart vessels and by increasing heart capacity. There is such a thing as too much of a good thing, however, and too much arnica extract could produce hypertension and adverse effects on the heart.
Arnica Is An Immunostimulant
In support of the immunostimulant property referred to above, it has been found arnica extract stimulated phagocytosis in laboratory animals. Among the bacteria counteracted were Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium.
Arnica - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Known Interactions
Since as arnica's diuretic action increases the renal excretion of sodium and chloride, the herb may potentiate the hyperglycemic and hyperuricemic effects of glucose-elevating agents.
Diuretics in general may potentiate the action of antihypertensive, ganglionic or peripheral adrenergic blocking drugs, tubocurarine and, to lesser degree, norepinephrine. It should also be noted the effects of dopamine and diuretic agents are additive.
Possible Interactions
The sympathomimetic action of the uterine relaxant ritodrine HC1 and the vascoconstricting property of arnica are additive.
In conjunction with corticotrophin (ACTH) or corticosteroids, this diuretic herb is more prone to produce hypokalemia. The use of diuretics in general may require dosage adjustments of antidiabetic drugs. The diuretic action of the herb may reduce renal clearance of lithium. An initial dose of the antihypertensive captopril may cause a severe drop in blood pressure within three hours if a strong diuretic such as arnica is also being used.
The pressor effect of this sympathomimetic agent may be markedly potentiated by monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI's) and tricyclic antidepressants. The use of this herb in obstetrics (ie., to correct hypotension) in conjunction with oxytocic drugs may produce hypertension. Additive pressor effects may occur when using arnica with the analeptic doxapram HAI..
Concurrent administration of large amounts of this herb and procarbazine antineoplastic drugs may induce a sudden hypertensive crisis.
Colchicine may increase sensitivity or enhance the response to arnica.
The cholinergic action of arnica may be antagonized by antihistamines, anticholinergics (atropine), nitrites, nitrates, pentareythritol tetranitrate, and tetraethylammonium chloride. The cholinergic action of arnica may potentiate depolarizing muscle relaxants such as decamethonium; if the interaction is severe, respiratory paralysis may result.
The anti-inflammatory activity of arnica can be seriously inhibited by phenobarbital and certain other sedatives and hypnotics, such as chloral hydrate and meprobamate. This is also true of beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as propranolol.
Comments
Due to the presence of blood serum platelet aggregation inhibitors (eg., linolenic acid), arnica may potentiate the effects of anticoagulant drugs such as heparin.
The strong diuretic action of arnica may produce digitalis toxicity if digitalis glycosides are being used. In conjunction with aminoglycoside antibiotics, it may also produce ototoxicity; combined with ethyl alcohol, barbiturates, or narcotics, it may produce orthostatic hypotension.
Strong diuretics such as arnica, in conjunction with indomethacin, may produce natriuretic effects. The herb may also enhance the nephrotoxicity of cephaloridine.
Prolonged use of this diuretic may affect certain laboratory test results such as electrolytes, especially potassium and sodium, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid, glucose, and protein bound iodine (PBI).
Arnica - Safety Factors & Toxicity
Arnica should be used in only very dilute solutions, even externally, as it can blister, irritate, and inflame the skin. Most herbalists insist this herb only be used under medical supervision.
It is regarded as unsafe by the FDA on the grounds it contains substances affecting the heart and vascular systems, and it can produce violent toxic gastroenteritis, nervous disturbances, a change in pulse rate, intense muscular weakness, collapse, and death.
Arnica has been known to cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals.
Arnica - Preparation and Administration
Tincture of flower heads: 1:10 in 45% alcohol
Caution: This tincture is for external application only. Discontinue use if there is an allergic reaction.
Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advise or attention of health care professionals.
Alfalfa
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description & Habitat
Medicago sativa
Family: Legume (Leguminoseae)
Common Names: Buffalo herb. Lucerne, Purple medic
Habitat North America, the Mediterranean region, western Asia; foothills and mountain areas
Description A perennial plant with a smooth, erect stem growing 2-3 feet tall. It bears grayish-green pinnately trifoliate leaves, with egg-shaped leaflets; it looks much like a large clover. Its violet-purple flowers grow in racemes from June to August, producing spirally-coiled seed pods.
Medical Parts: Dried whole herb, including blossoms; gathered at the beginning of flowering season.
Alfalfa- Historical Properties and Uses
Alfalfa has been extensively studied. Whole plant material contains many important substances, including several saponins, many sterols, coumarin, flavonoids, alkaloids, acids, vitamins, amino acids, sugars, proteins (25% by weight), minerals, trace elements, and other nutrients. Whole alfalfa also contains plenty of fibre with anticholesterolemic properties.
Alfalfa is one of the most nutritious foods known. Its calcium, carotene, chlorophyll, and vitamin K content make alfalfa an important nutritional supplement. Alfalfa root saponins can inhibit increases in blood cholesterol levels by 25% in experimental animals fed a high cholesterol diet. Offsetting this positive effect are findings that the root is hemolytic and may interfere with vitamin E metabolism.
High concentration of vitamin K found in whole alfalfa has beneficial effects on several forms of hemolytic disease. Alfalfa has antitumoral and antibacterial properties. In folk medicine, it has been used as a tonic and appetizer, and as a diuretic to relieve urinary and bowel problems. Perhaps the most common modern use of alfalfa is in the treatment of symptomatic arthritis, but although numerous clinical and anecdotal reports are available, no scientific research has been done on its effectiveness.
Alfalfa - Method of Action
Alfalfa Contains Vitamin K, An Antihemolytic Agent
Vitamin K is found in many green leafy plants, but is especially abundant in alfalfa. The herb has therefore been effectively used in treatment of vitamin K disorders in man. When the delivery of bile to the bowel is hindered, as in obstructive jaundice or biliary fistula, a bleeding disorder may arise. Other bleeding disorders may result from the use of artificial formulas to feed newborns, protracted antibiotic therapy, pancreatic insufficiency, chronic diarrhea and steatorrhea, and from the misuse of anticoagulants, aspirin, and anticonvulsant drugs.
Alfalfa Has Antibiotic Properties
The saponins in alfalfa have been shown to be antifungal. This activity is concentrated mainly in the medicagenic acid fraction.
Alfalfa has shown some activity against tuberculosis bacteria, while aqueous and volatile extracts of alfalfa are antibacterial against gram negative bacteria.
Alfalfa Has Antitumor Action
Basic proteins (histones) displaying antitumor activity without undesired side effects occur in alfalfa. These substances contain high levels of l-lysine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid. Tumor stimulating fractions were also found, containing large amounts of l-arginine. This basic relationship requires further study.
Other Pharmacology Of Alfalfa
Tricin has been isolated from alfalfa and found to cause smooth muscle relaxation in guinea pig intestinal tissue, and to have some slight estrogenic property.
Alfalfa Is Highly Nutritious
The nutrient content of alfalfa is one of the richest known, making it a useful livestock fodder and a highly recommended herb for the human diet as well.
Alfalfa Root Pharmacology
The hypocholesterolemic effect of alfalfa root saponins has been thoroughly established. Alfalfa root saponins can inhibit increases in blood cholesterol levels by 25% in experimental animals fed a high cholesterol diet.
Alfalfa root saponins also have a hemolytic effect. It appears this hemolytic effect is the result of a marked reduction in prothrombin factor concentration. In addition, they may interfere with the metabolism of vitamin E.
Alfalfa - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Possible Interactions
Alfalfa's hypoprothrombinemic effect may be increased by the antiarrhythmic agent, quinidine. In addition, allopurinol has been tentatively shown to increase the half-life of anticoagulants.
Comments
Alfalfa is high in iron, which may cause it to interfere with the absorption of tetracyclines. This is especially true if large quantities of the herb are ingested within two hours of taking tetracyclines. It should also be noted animal studies indicate iron plus allopurinol may lead to increased hepatic iron concentration.
Alfalfa may, because of the presence of eugenol in the herb, inhibit certain liver microsomal hydroxylating systems. This produces toxic effects from drugs normally metabolized by those systems.
It should be noted while the coumarin content of alfalfa is not high at normal usage levels, coumarins can effect the action of almost any drug.
The presence of tyramine and/or typtophan in alfalfa could produce hypertension if monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI's) are also being used. However, this is not a likely interaction.
Alfalfa - Safety Factors and Toxicity
Generally regarded as safe by the FDA.
Contact dermatitis has occurred in hypersensitive individuals. Alfalfa root saponins are hemolytic and may also interfere with the metabolism of vitamin E; however, above-ground parts have just the opposite effects.
The toxic effects of alfalfa root saponins have been shown to be counteracted by cholesterol and betasitosterol.
Alfalfa - Preparation and Administration
Three times a day
Dried herb: 5-10 grams
Tea: Made of 2 tsp of dried herb
Fluid extract: 1:1 in 25% alcohol, 5-10 ml
Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Brahmi
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Bacopa monniera, herpestis m
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Habitat: India
Medical Parts: Whole herb
Brahmi- Historical Properties and Uses
Brahmi is a popular Indian Ayurvedic herb. Brahmi is also one of the most frequently used herbs in Japanese medicine. In both cases, it is used primarily as a nerve tonic, to treat insomnia and nervous tension, with secondary applications as a diuretic.
Brahmi - Method of Action
Brahmi Saponins are Sedative in Nature
Brahmi contains saponins (dammarane type glycosides called bacosides) yielding ebelin lactone on acid hydrolysis. Saponins of similar character occur in Zizphus jujuba, jujuba fruit, and have been shown by Chinese physicians to strengthen the nervous system, and decrease insomnia. Jujuba and bacopa are both used for nearly the same purposes, and their chemistry turns out to be nearly identical also.
Brahmi also has marked hypotensive and diuretic properties. Brahmi has some anti-cancer properties against Walker 256 in the rat.
Brahmi Affects Learning and Memory
Brahmi facilitates the acquisition, consolidation and retention of learned tasks in rats. Acquired responses involved shock-motivated brightness-discrimination tasks (negative reinforcement), active conditioned avoidance responses, and conditioned taste aversions (positive reinforcement).
In this research it was also determined bacopa has no central depressant or stimulant action. The nervous system properties of bacopi appear, therefore, to be receiving ongoing validation in basic research.
Brahmi - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Known Interactions
Brahmi, insofar as its diuretic action increases the renal excretion of sodium and chloride, may potentiate the hyperglycemic and hyperuremic effects of glucose elevating agents.
Possible Interactions
Brahmi should not be used with methotrimeprazine, a potent CNS depressant analgesic.
The use of diuretics may require dosage adjustments of antidiabetic drugs.
Comments
In the absence of other hard data, it may still be assumed observable interactions may occur between the many central nervous system drugs and the psychoactive principles in brahmi.
The neuromuscular relaxing action of brahmi may be enhanced by the use of certain aminoglycoside antibiotics, such as clindamycin.
Brahmi - Safety Factors & Toxicity
Brahmi possess no known side effects or toxicity at normal doses.
Brahmi - Preparation & Administration
Tea: Use 1 - 3 g twice daily Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Cloves
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Caryophyllus aromaticus
Family: Myrtaceae
Common Names: Clavos, Mother cloves
Habitat: Native to the Mulucca islands of Asia and the southern Philippines Cultivated in Asia, Africa, South America, and the West Indies
Description
The clove is an evergreen tree from 30-40 feet in height, with a yellowish bark. It bears opposite ovate leaves that are 4 inches long and 2 inches wide. The flowers are red and white, growing in terminal cluster. The fruit is a 1- or 2-seeded berry.
Medicinal Parts: Flowerbud, dried
Cloves - Historical Properties and Uses
Cloves contain a powerful aromatic oil which is very high in eugenol and eugenyl acetate. Like other aromatic herbs, it possesses antispasmodic, choleretic, carminative, stimulant, stomachic, bactericidal, antiseptic and analgesic properties. Cloves soothing effect on toothache is well known, but supposed aphrodisiac action has not been substantiated by research.
Cloves - Method of Action
Cloves have exhibited some experimental antibacterial activity. The Chinese report success in treating athlete's foot and claim it is good for any ringworm.
The oil of cloves, high in eugenol and the very active eigemu; acetate, has been found to have antispasmodic, antihistaminic, antiseptic, and antifungal action.
The anodyne effect of cloves on toothache is well known. It is due to the presence of eugenol. Clove oil is found in several commercial preparations used as local anesthetics. Eugenol and clove extracts also have potent antioxidative activity.
Eugenol and whole clove extract are also powerful trypsin stimulators.
Cloves - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Possible Interactions
Cloves' analgesic effects may be additive with other analgesics and anesthetics. Conversely, they may be inhibited by barbiturates, despite any CNS depressant effects which may occur. The analgesic property of cloves may also be reversed or even eliminated by P-cholorophenylalanine, cyproheptadine HCl, and phenobarbital.
The CNS depressant tendency of this analgesic herb may be potentiated by chlorprothixene HCl, haloperidol, and tranquilizers.
It should also be noted the antihistaminic property of cloves will antagonize the effects of heparin.
Comments
Because they are high in iron, cloves may interfere with the absorption of tetracyclines. This is especially true if large quantities are ingested within two hours of taking tetracyclines. furthermore, animal studies indicate iron plus allopurinol may lead to increased hepatic iron concentration.
Due to the presence of eugenol, cloves may inhibit certain liver microsomal hydroxylating systems, thereby possibly producing toxic effects from drugs that are normally metabolized by those systems.
It should also be noted there is evidence combining bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents will lower the effectiveness of the bacteriostatic agent. However, how this finding applies to herbal antibiotics is unknown.
Cloves - Safety factors and Toxicity
Cloves are nontoxic in therapeutic amounts, and are generally regarded as safe by the FDA. Some individuals may be sensitive and develop skin irritation and rash.
Cloves - Preparation and Administration
Oil of Dried Flower-Buds: 0.05 - 0.2 ml for internal use; Dilute 1:3 with olive oil for external use
Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Cinnamon
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Family: Lauraceae
Habitat: Southern Asia and South America
Description
Cinnamon is an evergreen tree reaching 33 feet in height and is covered with a smooth, pale bark. Its leaves are oval, pointed, and 4-8 inches in length, dark green on top and pale underneath with prominent veins. The small, yellowish-white flowers grow in clusters from the upper leaf axils. The fruit is a reddish-brown berry.
Medicinal Parts: Dried inner bark
Cinnamon- Historical Properties and Uses
Much of cinnamon's bioactivity resides in its oil, which is about 90% cinnamaldehyde. Research indicates that cinnamon has effective anti-bacterial, antispasmodic, anti-ulcer, choleretic, sedative, hypothermic, antifungal, antiviral, antipyretic, lipolytic, antiseptic, anesthetic, anodyne, and cytotoxic properties.
Cinnamon- Method of Action
Cinnamon oil is about 90% cinnamaldehyde, a phenylpropanoid, which accounts for much of the activity of the plant.
Cinnamon has good antibacterial and excellent antitubercular properties in dilutions of 1:640 or more.
A combination of cinnamon and nine other popular Chinese herbs helped to increase the effectiveness and lower the side effects of mitomycin C against cancer. Just how much or what if any action was contributed by the cinnamon is unknown.
It has excellent antispasmodic or spasmolytic action, which is due to the presence of cinnamaldehyde. Cinnamaldehyde has also been shown to protect against stress-induced ulcers when administered to mice i.e. at a dose of 250 mg/kg.
Cinnamaldehyde increases the excretion of total biliary solids, as well as bile flow in rats. Activity was evident one hour following administration and lasted for over three hours. This chloritic action may explain the herb's carminative and stomachic properties.
Chinese herbal research suggest cinnamaldehyde has sedative, hypothermic, antifungal, antiviral, bactericidal and antipyretic properties.
Cinnamon has been shown to have some lipolytic property.
Eugenol is also present in cinnamon and exhibits the usual effects: antiseptic, anesthetic, anodyne, cytotoxic, etc. (e.g. MART).
Cinnamon - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Known Interactions
A mixture containing astragalia radix, cinnamon, peony, cnidii rhioma, angelica root, ginseng root, and licorice root has shown to enhance antitumor activity and decrease toxicity of mitomycin C.
Possible Interactions
The antituberculosis activity of cinnamon may potentiate the adverse effects of other antituberculous drugs, especially ethionamide.
The topical application of the astringent cinnamon, in conjunction with the acne product tretinoin (retinoic acid, vitamin A acid), may adversely affect the skin.
The tannin in cinnamon may potentiate the antibiotic activity of echinacea. The tannin in tea made from cinnamon may be inactivated by the addition of milk or cream.
By sequestering cinnamon, mineral oil may reduce the herb's anthelmintic effect. The same may be true, to a lesser extent, of antacids.
Comments
Due to the presence of eugenol, cinnamon may inhibit certain liver microsomal hydroxylating systems, thereby producing toxic effects from the drugs normally metabolized by those systems.
Although the coumarin content of cinnamon is not high at normal usage levels, it is important to note coumarins can affect the action of almost any drug.
There is evidence to show combining bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents will lower the effectiveness of the bacteriostatic agent. However, how this finding applies to herbal anti-infectives is still unknown.
Cinnamon - Safety Factors and Toxicity
The ingestion of large amounts of cinnamon oil can have dire consequences for the kidneys and liver. Ingestion of raw cinnamon bark or cinnamon "toothpicks" can irritate the mucous membranes.
Cinnamon is nontoxic in therapeutic doses, and is generally regarded as safe by the FDA.
Cinnamon - Preparation and Administration
Three times a day Dried bark: 0.5 - 1 gram as tea Fluid extract: 1:1 in 70% alcohol, 0.5 - 1 ml Oil (distilled from bark): 0.05 - 0.2 ml Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Evening Primrose
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Oenothera biennis
Family: Onagraceae
Common Names: Common evening primrose, Fever plant, Scabish, Scurvish, Sundrop Tree primrose, Willow herb
Habitat
Native to the North Temperate Zone, east of the Rockies to the Atlantic coast; found in dry meadows, waste places, and along roadsides.
Description
The plant is a perennial herb with an erect, hairy stem bearing alternate, rough, hairy, lanceolate leaves. The leaves taper to a point and grow from 3 - 6 inches long. Yellow flowers bloom in umbrels, 1 to 1-1/2 inches across, from June to October. Fruit is an oblong, hairy capsule.
Medicinal Parts: Whole plant - fresh, oil
Evening Primrose - Historical Properties and Uses
Traditional uses of evening primrose as an astringent, antibiotic, mucilaginous, expectorant, antitussive, and digestive stimulant have given way to modern uses concentrating on a single property of the plant.
The oil is high in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which is readily converted in the body to prostaglandin E1; therefore, it is employed in the treatment of any and every condition for which prostaglandin could be beneficial. Numbering among those conditions are: premenstrual syndrome, benign breast disease, cholesterol regulation, platelet aggregation, blood pressure regulation, obesity, atopic disease, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, mental disorders, rheumatism, alcoholism, and childhood hyperactivity.
Evening Primrose - Method of Action
Evening Primrose Oil is a Rich Source of GLA
The real value of evening primrose lies in the gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) content of its oil. GLA is an important intermediary in the metabolic conversion of linoleic acid (technically, the cis-isomer) to prostaglandin E1. Essentially that pathway goes as follows:
cis-linoleic acid --> --> gamma-linolenic acid --> --> dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid --> --> prostaglandin E1
The normal diet is quite sufficient in linoleic acid, but the first step in its conversion to prostaglandin E1 can be easily blocked. Among the known blocking agents are: viruses, carcinogens, cholesterol, saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, alcohol, insufficient zinc or insulin, radiation, insufficient delta-6-desaturase, and the aging process. Dietary GLA could therefore be extremely valuable since very few factors block the successive steps in the metabolic pathway.
Most, if not all, properties of evening primrose oil resemble and indeed can be attributed to the actions of prostaglandin E1. Among those effects already investigated are the following:
Premenstrual Syndrome In one study 61% of the patients reported complete relief, 25% reported partial relief. The results were attributed to the ability of PgE1 to inhibit the effects of prolactin, an agent though responsible for some of the symptoms of PMS. In another study, Evening Primrose Oil (GammaOil) was used with remarkable success. The symptoms of swollen abdomen and breast discomfort were eradicated in 95% of the women, irritability in 80%, depression in 74%, swollen fingers and ankles in 79%, and anxiety in 53%. The only two symptoms which persisted in more than half of the women were tiredness and headaches. A dosage of four 500mg capsules was recommended morning and night for two weeks leading up to menstruation.
Benign Breast Disease
In a related manner to the above, Evening Primrose oil, through the inhibition of prolactin, has been reported to cure or substantially reduce the symptoms of benign breast disease. Since a dietary deficiency of essential fatty acids may cause increased deposition of fibrous tissue, the cysts of benign breast disease may be in some way related.
Cholesterol
Evening Primrose oil effectively lowers serum cholesterol in animals and humans with high levels. This effect usually takes several weeks.
Platelet Aggregation
Evening Primrose decreased the tendency of the blood to clot.
Blood Pressure
Studies have shown Evening Primrose oil can lower already high blood pressure levels.
Obesity
In at least one study, human patients taking Evening Primrose oil were found to lose weight, but only if they were at least 10% over their ideal body weight. Patients within the 10% limit exhibited no loss of weight. Conversely, another trial failed to find an anti-obesity effect of Evening Primrose oil in subjects who were at least 20% above their ideal weight.
Skin Conditions
Evening Primrose oil has been used successfully in patients with atopic eczema. A double blind cross-over study was used with the following dosages:
| Adults: | Group A - 2 capsules taken twice daily
Group B - 4 capsules taken twice daily
Group C - 6 capsules taken twice daily |
| Children: | 2 to 4 capsules per day |
Results indicated in the Evening Primrose oil group, there was significant clinical improvement especially at the higher dosages. The overall improvement at the higher dosages was about 43%.
Psoriasis may be responsive to a combination of Evening Primrose oil and fish oils (GammaOil Marine). A preliminary study in Denmark has shown this to be so, and a more comprehensive study is currently underway.
Multiple Sclerosis
One of the earliest diseases for which Evening Primrose oil was used is multiple sclerosis. When linoleic acid is given to patients with MS it reduces the frequency and severity of relapses. Therefore, one could expect similar results from Evening Primrose oil. Early studies were not promising but they involved potentially serious procedural errors.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Fifty-two patients, all long-standing sufferers of arthritis taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drugs, were given either Evening Primrose oil (Efamol) or Evening Primrose Oil plus Fish Oils (Efamol Marine). Sixty percent (60%) of the patients were able to withdraw completely from NSAID treatment, and another 25% were able to cut their NSAID dosage in half.
Alcoholism
Preliminary tests in humans show Evening Primrose oil can make withdrawal from alcohol easier and can relieve post-drinking depression.
Brain and liver function improve more quickly in people who have stopped drinking if they take Evening Primrose oil (Efamol). A study of 62 alcoholics found alcoholics taking Efamol for 24 weeks had significantly faster brain function than those who had not. Efamol had an even more remarkable effect on liver function. After only three weeks, patients taking Efamol showed a significant improvement of liver function over those who did not take the supplement.
Diabetic Neuropathy
Neuropathy (the loss of sensation or feeling) is a complication commonly affecting older diabetics. Twenty-two patients with diabetic neuropathy were successfully treated with eight 500mg of Evening Primrose oil capsules a day. Over six months there was significant improvement in both motor and sensory conduction of peripheral nerves and in thermal sensation measurements. Further studies are in progress.
Other uses of Evening Primrose Oil
In addition to the above uses, research at the Efamol Institute in Nova Scotia has implicated Evening Primrose oil in the successful treatment of childhood hyperactivity and mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Much of that research is yet to be published. Independent substantiation of the possible therapeutic role of Evening Primrose oil has been forthcoming.
Evening Primrose Oil has good antimicrobial activity
Evening Primrose oil has some antitubercular activity as well as antimicrobial and antibacterial properties. It is active against Staphylococcus citrius, S. roseus, Pseudomonas pyocyanea, Streptococcus pyogenes, E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella aerogenes, Diplococcus pneumoniae and Salmonella typhi. For each of these organisms, the oil compared favourably with penicillin.
Evening Primrose - Drug Interactions & Precautions
Possible Interactions
Veratrum alkaloids may potentiate the activity of evening primrose by up to 50%. The hypotensive effect of this herb may also be potentiated by anorectic drugs such as fenfluramine, whose effects are mediated by brainstem 5HT.
Evening Primrose should not be used with methotrimeprazine, a potent CNS-depressant analgesic. Furthermore, colchicine may increase sensitivity or enhance the response to evening primrose.
The topical application of this astringent herb, in conjunction with the acne product tretinoin (retinoic acid, vitamin A acid), may adversely affect the skin.
Additive effects may occur between the hypotensive property of evening primrose and that of dopamine receptor agonists, such as bromocriptine mesylate.
Comments
Due to the presence of blood serum platelet aggregation inhibitors, such as linolenic acid, evening primrose may potentiate the effects of anticoagulant drugs such as heparin.
In order to minimize central nervous system depression and possible synergism, Evening Primrose should not be taken by persons on procarbazine antineoplastic drugs.
Evening Primrose - Safety Factors & Toxicity
The toxicity of Evening Primrose appears to be very low.
Evening Primrose - Preparation & Administration
Oil: 1/2 tsp or 3 perles three times a day
Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Ginseng
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Panax ginseng
Family: Aroliaceae
Common Names: Asiatic ginger, Chinese ginseng, Wander-of-the-world
Habitat: Indigenous to the mountain forest of Asia from Nepal to Manchuria, and is cultivated primarily in Korea.
Description
Has a perennial root which annually produces a smooth, round stem reaching one foot in height. The stem terminates by dividing into two to three stalked compound leaves which consist of five to seven petiolate, oblong-ovate, serrate leaflets.
A solitary, simple umbel of greenish-yellow flowers grows from the top of the stem blooming from June to August. The fruit is a red, kidney-shaped berry.
Medicinal Parts: Root - dried or fresh
Ginseng--Historical Properties and Uses
Ginseng possesses some powerful and seemingly contradictory effects. For instance, under certain conditions the herb can lower blood pressure, but under other conditions, it can elevate pressure. Other characteristics of ginseng will appear in unhealthy organisms, but will be absent in normal, healthy organisms.
These apparently inconsistent findings have led researchers to hypothesis the guiding principle behind ginseng's action is to "restore normalcy" to organisms and to resist any change from the condition of overall health (such as infection). Thus the organism's ability to "adapt" to environmental changes is increased. Any herb or other agent that increases an organism's ability to adapt is called an "adaptogen," and this possible explanation of ginseng's properties is known as the "adaptogen hypothesis."
Russian researchers who originated the term have used the qualities of Panax ginseng and related Siberian ginseng to define the characteristics of an adaptogen, but such a definition excludes many herbs and other substances whose properties do not exactly match those of the ginsengs. Echinacea, for example, has a powerful ability to build resistance to infection, and many of the so-called alteratives likewise contribute to the adapting ability of animals and humans.
As a explanation of ginseng's activity, Hans Seyle's model of stress adaptation is not so restrictive. His model pre-dates the adaptogen hypothesis; it concerns the relationship between the nervous system and the glands of the body and the way these interact with environmental, nutritional, and physiological stresses. The model holds any substance, including ginseng, affecting those interrelationships will ultimately affect the immune system and the body's ability to deal with stress in either a positive or negative manner.
Ginseng affects the body in a very positive manner. The herb works on the central nervous system directly, affecting its ability to increase output or to acquire equilibrium when in a state of tension. It stabilizes uncontrolled reactions in the blood, such as sugar levels. It constricts or dilates vessels in the direction of normalcy. Analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory action occur when needed. The herb can either thin the blood or increase its clotting ability, depending on circumstances.
Visible effects of the herb include increased learning ability, resistance to infection, and endurance. Resistance to and recovery from many types of poisoning are enhanced. As a tonic for the whole body, ginseng species are among the best.
Some of the most important and promising studies presently being conducted with ginseng are those investigating its effect on the aging process. Though not all results are in, preliminary findings indicate regular use of small amounts of ginseng can increase lifespan. Use of the herb as an aphrodisiac may even have an effect, although such actions are often exaggerated.
Ginseng--Method of Action
The various components of ginseng have been shown to possess a wide spectrum of effects, some of which are contradictory. The following list of effects were compiled from research literature on general pharmacological evaluations of ginseng in mice, rats, and guinea pigs.
The physiological or behavioural effects are listed for the specific ginseng extracts obtained at each step in the extraction process, both for water and alcohol (or ether).
Water Soluble Extracts
First step: slight central nervous system stimulant, cholinergic, histaminergic (blood vessel dilation), serotonergic (vasoconstrictor), and blood pressure elevation.
Next step: all of the above, and papaverine-like action (antispasmodic, smooth muscle relaxing).
Alcohol Soluble Extracts
First step: central nervous system depressant, cholinergic, histaminergic, ganglion stimulant, and blood pressure elevation.
Second step: All of the above, and papaverine-like action.
Third step: serotonergic.
Fourth step: tranquillizing, blood pressure lowering, analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory.
Generally, water soluble components have a slight CNS stimulant action which the alcohol components lack. However, the alcohol extracts exhibit tranquillizing effects, lowered blood pressure, analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties not shared by the water soluble extracts.
The following is a more detailed breakdown of effects:
Fraction G No. 3: central nervous system depressant, cholinergic, histaminergic, serotonergic, and blood pressure elevation.
Fraction G No. 4: slight central nervous system stimulant, central nervous system depressant, histaminergic, serotonergic, and blood pressure elevation.
Fraction (I-V): hemolytic.
Fraction (VI-VIII): anti-hemolytic.
Fraction III: increases nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA and RNA polymerase, and increases rate of serum protein synthesis.
The following is a breakdown by specific saponin:
Ginsengoside-Rbl (alcohol soluble extract; ginsengoside-Rb2 and -Rc can generally also be included): central nervous system depressant, tranquillizing, blood pressure lowering, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, facilitate small intestine motility, protect against effects of stress on ulcer formation, papaverine-like, increase synthesis of hepatic cholesterol, and increase RNA activity in rat liver.
Ginsengoside-Ro (alcohol extracts; Fraction I): central nervous system depressant, blood pressure elevating, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and extremely hemolytic when injected intravenously.
Ginsengoside-Rg1 (water soluble; ginsengoside-Rg2 and -Rf can also be included): slight central nervous system stimulant, blood pressure elevating, anti-fatigue, and stimulates DNA, protein, and lipid synthesis in bone marrow (this effect occurs with -Rc and -Rb2 also).
Ginsengoside-F (extracts from ginseng leaves and foliage): lower blood pressure (in low doses), raise blood pressure (in high doses), hemolytic, central nervous system depressant, tranquillizing, analgesic, cholinergic, histaminergic, and papaverine-like.
Panaxoside C: stimulant (genin=panaxatriol).
The CNS depressant action is found in all saponins of ginseng except ginsengoside-Rg1, and is particularly strong in ginsenoside-Rb1 which belongs to the panaxadiol type saponin. Rb1 has remarkable sedative and tranquillizing action.
It may be noted American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) has much higher quantities of panaxadiol saponins that does Panax ginseng, and might therefore be expected to possess much greater sedative effects.
Ginsengoside-Rg1, with its mild stimulating action, increased the ability of rats to learn a Y-maze. Caffeine, another stimulant, also increases the ability of rats to learn this maze, but in a slightly different manner. Whereas caffeine increases running time, indicating increased nervous behaviour, the ginseng saponin significantly shortened running time, meaning the animal was able to go straight to the end of the maze without wasted energy.
G No. 3 from the ginsengoside Rb series was found to have central nervous system depressantactivity, whereas G No. 4 and ginsengoside Rg series had stimulant and anti-fatigue activity.
Some studies indicate the whole plant may not act in the same manner as any particular constituent. Some constituents may cancel others out, or may act in concert to produce some entirely different and new effects.
One study found whole ginseng in small amounts (2.5-5.0 mg/kg) increased general activity, but in large doses (50 or more mg/kg) decreased activity.
Whole ginseng has no hemolytic activity, but half of the active constituents of ginseng are hemolytic; the other half are anti-hemoltyic. Other constituents have been shown to increase RNA activity of rat liver (Rb saponins), while others (Rc saponins) decreased RNA incorporation.
The following is a list of pharmacological results reported by Soviet researchers. Since it is unclear what kind of extracts, fractions, or saponins were used to obtain these results, the results are presented without such information:
- anti-narcotic
- intensification of inner inhibitory effects in the cortex
- transitory and slight hypotensive effects
- carbohydrate sparing effect
- enhanced resynthesis of glycogen and high energy phosphate compounds
- increased body weight
- restoration of blood albumin after massive bleeding
- stimulation of immune body production
- increased physical and mental efficiency in man
- increased endurance of white mice in water swimming and rope climbing tasks
- radio-protective action
- increased life span in rats with alloxan-induced
- impeded hypertrophy and atrophy of adrenals
- reduced sugar level in hyperglycemia and increased sugar level in insulin-induced hypoglycemia
- normalization of both leucocytosis and leucopenia
- normalization of both erythrocytosis and erythropenia
- produces an anti-alarm reaction to stress
- stimulated growth of yeast cells
- protozoan and bacteria
- anti-radical and antioxidant effects (important in aging process)
One of the earliest modern experiments with ginseng involved putting it into the mouth of one of two men chosen on the basis of similar physical characteristics. The men both ran a certain distance. The one without the ginseng showed shortness of breath and the other felt relatively easy.
Ginseng saponins of the Rg group reportedly have true stimulating effects on the central nervous system, and certain of the combinations of fraction IV may have possible CNS action, but here, the effect has been reported to be metabolic in nature rather than neural excitatory.
In one study, lethal doses of ginsenosides -Rb1, -Rb2, and Rc decreased alertness and grooming behaviour in mice, lowered body temperature, reduced spontaneous movement, abolished touch responses, pain responses, and relaxed muscle tone before death. Decreases in spontaneous and exploratory movement were induced by small doses. The same substances in other studies were shown to have tranquillizing and papaverine effects.
Ginseng has been shown to increase the rate of synthesis of RNA in the nucleus and cytoplasm of rat liver cells. It also causes a rise of 46-49% in the synthesis of protein in the blood, especially albumin and gamma-globulin. A single injection of certain saponins was also shown to increase the activity of a substance which helps produce RNA. Also, the increase of amino acids incorporation within the liver was 85% more active than in control animals.
Changes in the liver induced by ginseng have been shown to enhance the synthesis of cholesterol. Particularly active was -Rb1, the most predominant of ginseng saponins. This saponin also increased the breakdown of cholesterol into other steroids. An increased rate of excretion of cholesterol was observed in bile and faeces. Ginseng has also been found to increase incorporation in the liver, of fats coupled by a slight decrease in blood sugar level. The investigators suggest ginseng acts by increasing the conversion rate of sugars into the necessary substrates for the synthesis of fatty acids (lipogenesis).
Other researchers found ginseng-extract-treated rat liver produced an increase over control animals in the incorporation of radioactive labelled precursors into nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA and DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity. Administration of ginseng extract directly into the stomach caused an increase in the ratio of serum protein creation such as albumin and gamma-globulin. Endoplasmic reticulum ( the part of the cell most involved in these metabolic changes) was increased after four weeks, as seen by electron microscope.
Physiological changes due to stress seem to be mediated, prevented, and reversed by the action of ginseng. Mixed ginseng inhibited major changes in the weight of mouse adrenals, thymus, spleen and thyroid as compared to controls.
Ginseng has been shown to significantly improve an animal's ability to tolerate temperature stress, but when the adrenals were removed, the effect vanishes. Ginseng also decreased oxygen consumption and has anti-fatigue properties, as assessed by swimming endurance tests. The adaptive mechanism of the body appears to be enhanced by ginseng, as shown in the above studies as well as in experiments in which the weight of the adrenals, the ascorbic acid content of the adrenals (normally depleted during stress) and the cholesterol content were used as measurements of stress.
In experiments using ascorbic acid content of the adrenals of male albino rats as the measure of stress reaction, the greater the stress, the less ascorbic acid that is found on autopsy. Using heat and cold as stressors, it has been found ginseng alone did not significantly change the rate of depletion of ascorbic acid, but in the presence of the heat or cold stress, the herb initially helped deplete all ascorbic acid and then greatly helped to restore ascorbic acid in the adrenals. In another experiment, in hyophysealectomized rats, similar results were obtained, demonstrating the site action of the ginseng extract was the adrenals themselves. This line of research invalidates the theory ginseng affects the stress reaction by influencing the central nervous system.
Similar conclusions were reached in a study in intraperitoneal administration of saponins were found to delete cyclic AMP in a dose dependent manner, and increase plasma 11--hydroxy corticosteroid in intact rats; but, in hypophysectomized rats, saponin treatment did not increase adrenal cyclic AMP whereas corticotrophin treatment did. It was therefore concluded ginseng saponin indirectly stimulated the adrenocortical function in intact rats.
Finally, when ginseng saponin mixture was administered to rats intraperitoneally, plasma ACTH andcorticosterone increased significantly. The kinetic pattern of the increase in plasma ACTH was almost parallel to plasma corticosterone. Isolated ginsengoside, protopanaxatriol or protopanaxatriol glycoside increased plasma corticosterone. The ginseng-induced increase was suppressed by pretreatment with dexamethasone. Thus the ginseng saponin was found to act on the hypothalamus and/or hypophysis primarily, and stimulated ACTH secretion which resulted in increased synthesis of corticosterone in the adrenal cortex. This finding, and (HIA3), seem to contradict the results of (KIM2) who found a direct action on the adrenals.
Ginseng is reported to facilitate healing, and has anti-inflammatory effects, as well as prevents an increase in white blood cells in the circulatory system; it is also antipyretic. Studies with patients with stomach and duodenum ulcers have shown faster recovery after stomach operations if given ginseng.
Increasing concentrations of panax ginseng caused a dose-related inhibition of phytohaemagglutinin-induced transformation of peripheral blood lymphocytes in 4 normal health adult volunteers. A combination of ginseng and hydrocortisone produced a greater suppression than either drug alone. This suggests panax ginseng has a steroid-like effect in vitro, and may have a potentiating effect with hydrocortisone on T-cell-mediated immunity.
Two of the saponin glycosides isolated from the methanol extract were found to have delayed and prolonged anti-inflammatory properties based on albumin stabilizing activity and carrageenin edema tests in rats.
The following are further research findings on ginseng, not so well investigated as preceding observations:
Brain wave pattern (EEG) of rabbits was activated in the sensorimotor and occipital regions by doses of 0.05 to 2,0 ml/kg of ginseng extract.
There is evidence to support the theory ginseng influences the readiness of the nervous and muscular systems through an effect on potassium stores inside neurons. It thereby facilitates the function of conditional reflexes of evoked potentials.
Ginseng has been shown to increase the capacity for mental work as well as intellectual performance; although there appears to be no noticeable increase in volume work, there is a significant reduction in errors.
More on the central nervous system stimulating properties of ginseng:
Ginsengoside Rg1, the main component of ginsengoside Rg fraction, accelerated the recovery from fatigued states in mice exposed to 4 hours oscillation. GRg and G No. 5 have produced a slight shortening of the response latency to the conditioned stimulus in pole-climbing and shuttle-avoidance tests, and G No. 5 disrupted the discrimination of sound stimuli in the avoidance situation.
Neither G No. 5 nor GRg produced significant changes in the acquisition of a conditioned emotional response to shock stimuli. However, GRg produced significant acceleration in the acquisition of discrimination behaviour in the presence of sound stimuli, and small doses of G No. 5 produced a significant decrease of an acquisition of the discrimination task.
Ginseng seems to be effective in protecting an organism from stress and facilitating healing but the results in this area are still somewhat of a surprise. A mixture of saponins, mostly -Rb1, -Rb2, and -Rc, was found to significantly increase the time it took for mice to die after being injected with three convulsants: pentylenetetrazol, strychnine, and nicotine. Time of death was increased an average of about 20% over control animals who received no protection. However, ginseng was not as effective as the strong depressant chlorpromazine.
Russian research, which always seems to find more dramatic results, indicated an alcohol extract of ginseng prevented the death of 50% of mice given a lethal dose of strychnine. Furthermore, almost all of the surviving mice did not develop the characteristic strychnine convulsions.
Ginseng has also been found to protect lab animals against nitrogen and mustard gas poisoning as well.
Injections of a ginseng extract have increased the rate of synthesis of serum albumin and gamma- globulin as well as DNA, RNA, protein and lipids in bone-marrow cells. And even minute amounts of ginseng caused changes in mast cells. Based on their findings, studies were done to investigate the action of ginseng on radiation exposure.
Ginseng treated mice have experienced increased survival times against chronic irradiation with a total of up to 7000 rads, and a radio-protection about equal to cysteamine after an acute irradiation of 800 rads. The percentage of mice surviving irradiation of 675 rads almost tripled (an astonishing 80%) as a result of intraperitoneal injections of a ginseng saponin mixture 5 minutes after irradiation.
In a recent study, ginseng extract was applied to cells in culture at a dose of 10 micrograms/ml, and found to be significantly radio-protective against gamma-irradiation. Through control comparisons they were able to determine that ginseng saponin increase radiation resistance by altering cell physiology rather than through the DNA repair process.
In fertility and geriatrics, ginseng has provided some interesting results. Male patients complaining of infertility were treated with glutamine, ginseng, or vitamin E. Administration of glutamine or extract of ginseng and hormones showed good results. Increases of sperm were observed in 28% of the cases and successful pregnancies occurred in 25 cases. Ginseng was not used by itself.
In another study, rats were divided into five groups: groups of 20 were either not treated, castrated, treated with testosterone after castration, with ginseng after castration, or treated with ginseng before and after castration. Certain cells (anterochromaffin cells) decrease radically after castration. Ginseng before and after castration has about the same increase over controls in these cells as the group receiving testosterone.
There is a case of a 70-year old woman who developed swollen, tender breasts with diffuse modularity after taking ginseng powder regularly for two weeks. It was said and is not clear how ginseng produced these symptoms.
Ginseng has been shown to lengthen the lifespan of human cells in culture. Extracts had as much effect on cell density and growth rate as did hydrocortisone, i.e., ginseng prevented the normal degeneration occurring in cells left in a normal medium.
Using a human diploid fibroblast strain paradigm, it was found ginseng saponins significantly increased the level of cellular lactate levels and the specific activities of enzymes associated with an anaerobic shift in metabolism. It is hypothesized since in aging rate heart and brain tissue there is a characteristic shift in lactic dehydrogenase isoenzyme patterns decreasing the ability of these organs to tolerate anaerobic conditions such as might occur during sustained work, and since ginseng effectively inhibits that shift, then the herb also helps to maintain or restore the capacity to tolerate anaerobic conditions, thereby counteracting this particular age-related change.
Ginseng - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Known Interactions
A mixture containing astragali radix, cinnamon, peony, cnidii rhioma, angelica root, ginseng root, and licorice root was shown to enhance antitumour activity and decrease toxicity of mitomycin C.
Possible Interactions
The adrenocortical or corticosteroidal action of ginseng may be antagonized by the use of heparin, while the adrenocortical responsiveness to ginseng may be impaired by the use of amphotericin B.
In addition, the anti-inflammatory activity of ginseng can be seriously inhibited by phenobarbital and certain other sedatives and hypnotics, such as chloral hydrate and meprobamate. This is also true of beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as propranolol.
Comments
To the extent ginseng's action depends on the presence of cholinergic substances, it will be affected by the decrease in cholinergic-receptor stimulation produced by anticholinergic.
In the absence of other hard data, it may still be assumed observable interactions may occur between the many central nervous system drugs and the psychoactive principles in ginseng.
Ginseng - Safety Factors and Toxicity
Ginseng has a very low toxicity. Some reports appearing in the Journal of the American Medical Association would have you believe otherwise; but those reports are, unfortunately, in the worst tradition of medical research, not the best.
The so-called "ginseng abuse syndrome" hypothesis was, and still is, based on poorly conducted observations in a highly skewed population whose members bear no similarity to the millions of regular ginseng users throughout the rest of the country and the world.
Nevertheless, all authorities on ginseng recommend, usually more for philosophical than biological reasons, the herb be used in moderation.
The use of ginseng, as is also true about all herbal products, is not a case of "if a little is good, more must be better."
Ginseng - Preparation and Administration
There is presently insufficient data on this subject.
Marigold
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Calendula officinale
Family: Compositae
Common names: Calendula, Holigod, Marybud
Habitat: Native to Southern Europe and widely cultivated.
Description
Grows one to two feet in height and has a hairy, branching stem. The lower leaves are paddle-shaped; the upper leaves are more pointed and stalkless, embracing the stem. Both type leaves are hairy and toothed. Yellow or orange terminal flower heads appear from June to October.
Medicinal parts: Leaves - dried, Flowers - dried, Herbs - dried The medicinal parts should only be gathered in fine weather after dew has been dried by sun.
Marigold - Historical Properties and Uses
Marigold is a traditional vulnerary for treatment of wounds, sores and other skin problems. In recent years its action has been considered too weak to compete with numerous other wound treatments now on the market. In Europe, however, ointments and similar preparations containing marigold still enjoy some popularity, and there marigold is still one of the most popular herbs for stimulating the immune system.
Recent research, most of which has been done in the Slavic countries, indicates simple water and/or alcohol extracts of marigold significantly stimulate healing and tissue regeneration in wounds. Combined with allantoin acquired from comfrey leaves, the application is even more effective. Contributing to the healing effect of marigold is its proven bacteriostatic activity.
There is some experimental support for marigold's traditional use as a cholagogue and as a means to enhance uterine tonus, but more research is required to determine its mechanism of action. Its cholagogue property might explain folklore reports of the herb's effectiveness in other gastrointestinal complaints, such as ulcers, colitis, and diarrhea.
Other uses of marigold, including its purported diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and febrifuge properties, have not been investigated. So far, even after extensive chemical investigation of the plant, no constituents have been identified that would exhibit any of those.
Marigold - Method of Action
Marigold extracts influence regeneration of skin cells
Several studies have shown alcohol and water extracts of marigold positively affect the regeneration and epithelization of surgically induced wounds.
In a typical study (usually on a rat), skin wounds are surgically inflicted on a shaven area on the animal's back under sterile conditions. The wounds are usually round or ellipsoid, with a diameter of about 4 cm. Experimental and control substances are then smeared on the surface of experimental or control animals. Wound exudates are studied by means of cell smears taken at regular intervals throughout the study. Cytological preparations are fixed and stained.
Histological tests are made on tissue samples from the edges and bottoms of the wounds several days into the study. Compared to controls, substances isolated from marigold (including flavonoids, carotenoids, calenden, calendulin, etheric oils, and slimy components) have been significantly more effective in stimulating physiological regeneration and epithelization of skin and mucous injuries.
Marigold has a synergistic healing effect on skin
In one very interesting experiment, alcohol and water extracts of marigold were combined with allantoin. Wounds were made on rats according to the procedures outlined above. Compared to groups of animals treated with inert substrate or with straight allantoin, the marigold plus allantoin group showed significantly more extensive epithelization. This effect was evident by the 3rd day, and reached its height by day 14. The allantoin group did not differ appreciably from the control group treated with the inert substance.
Wound regeneration displayed the following stages: inflammatory-exudative cell reaction; proliferation of cells with phagocytic functions; formation of young granulation and connective tissue; then, appearance of regenerating epithelium. Differences in the cytology of wound exudate appeared as early as the 24th hour. In the experimental group the polymorphonuclear eukocytes possessed acquired higher glycogen content, and a considerable number of blast cells were observed. Later, granulation and epithelization proceeded in a more accelerated fashion. The increased phagocytic activity and differentiation of the macrophages under the influence of the marigold extract/allantoin combination was presumably due predominantly to increased glycogen content in these cells, resulting from the supply of some glycides and amino-sugars. The accelerated formation of granulation and epithelial tissues probably was a reflection of an intensive metabolism of the nucleoproteides and collagen proteins during later phases of the process of regeneration.
Marigold is effective against periodontal disease
In a clinical setting with human subjects, a solution of marigold extract was applied topically to 48 patients with periodontal disease. Good therapeutic effect was obtained in 40 cases. Subsequent in vitro investigations with a 10% water extract of the plant found it inhibited all strains of bacteria and fungi tested. A combination of antimicrobial and tissue healing properties is probably responsible for the observed effects.
Miscellaneous pharmacology of marigold
Marigold increases the flow of bile from 20% - 50%, making it a herb of modest to good cholagogue activity.
Marigold's essential oil has strong bacteriostatic activity, inhibiting the growth of numerous strains in a nutrient broth, including Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina citrea, S. Rosa, S. beige, Bacillus subtilis, B. anthracis., and Salmonella enteritdiis.
Water extracts (infusions or teas) of marigold were studied for their ability to enhance uterine tonus in isolated rabbit and guinea pig uterine horns. In a final extract concentration of 1 to 2 mg crude drug per 1 cubic centimetre, marigold significantly raised the tonus of the uterine preparation. In fact, among the plants so tested, marigold ranked second only to chamomile in this regard.
Whole marigold possesses spermicidal activity in vitro against rat sperm. Marigold leaf extract exhibits such activity against human sperm.
Marigold - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Possible Interactions
Marigold should be used with caution in conjunction with CNS-depressants or stimulants.
It should be noted that anti-inflammatory activity of marigold can be seriously inhibited by phenobarbital and certain other sedatives and hypnotics, such as chloral hydrate and meprobamate. This is also true of beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as propanolol.
Marigold - Safety Factors and Toxicity
Marigold has exhibited no toxic properties, but there is a chance sensitive people may be allergic to it.
Marigold - Preparation and Administration
Three times a day
Dried herb: 1-4 grams
Tea: Made from 1 tsp of dried herb
Fluid extract: 1:1 in 40% alcohol, 0.5-1 ml
Tincture: 1:5 in 90% alcohol, 0.3-1.2 ml
Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Echinacea
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Botanical Description and Habitat
Echinacea angustifolia
Family: Compositae
Common Names: Black sampson, Purple coneflower, Sampson root
Habitat: Prairie region of the United States, west of Ohio
Description:
Echinacea is a perennial plant which produces a stout, bristly, hairy stem 2-3 feet in height. The leaves are linear, lanceolate, and grow 3-8 inches long; they are rough, hairy, and 3-nerved. The upper leaves are sessile, and the lower leaves grow on long petioles. A single large flower blooms from July to October; it is white-rose to pale purple in color, with a conicle disk and 12-20 large, spreading rays.
Medicinal Parts: Underground parts-fresh or dried
Echinacea Historical Properties and Uses
Echinacea is used to stimulate the body's immune system and to fight viral and bacterial infections. It inhibits the enzyme hyaluronidase, which when activated, destroys the cementing substances between cells and allows pathogens to infiltrate the body. The herb stimulates T-cells and activates macrophages that destroy foreign intracellular invaders. Echinacea increases levels of properdin, a naturally-occurring chemical thought to increase cellular resistance to infection. It also displays anti-tumor and direct antibiotic actions.
Echinacea's other immunity-boosting properties are currently being investigated. There are indications the herb delays resorption of other drugs, thereby prolonging their action in the body. It could likewise prolong the effects of any other herbs administered simultaneously.
Echinacea - Method of Action
Echinacea has antibiotic action
Echinacea has been shown to have mild antibiotic activity against Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus, attributable to the constituent echinacoside.
Echinacea increases the body's immune defence
One of the main actions of echinacea is to inhibit the activity of the enzyme hyaluronidase.
This enzyme is normally used by pathogens to destroy hyaluronic acid (the cementing tissue between cells) allowing passage into sensitive tissues. The constituent appearing to be responsible for inhibiting hyaluronidase has been identified as echinacin B.
Interestingly, a mechanism very similar to the hyaluronidase system has been proposed as a possible substrate for the generation of rheumatism and tumor formation and the beginnings of cancer.
The antihyaluronidase activity of echinacea has also been shown to be involved in the regeneration of cellular connective (granulomatous) tissue destroyed during infection. In one study, heterogeneous and homogeneous fibrin grafts were transformed, via amino acids, into components of the connective tissue substance. Under the influence of leucocytic enzymes. The transformation was facilitated by a total extract of echinacea.
Compared to pure fibrin grafts, echinacea-fibrin grafts exhibited increased healing tendency of the wound areas and less marked leucocytic infiltration. New fibrocytes appeared more rapidly and on a larger scale, and the extract appeared to develop protective action towards the mesenchymal mucopolysaccharides produced by the fibrocytes. In other words, the echinacea stimulates the breakdown of fibrin into mucopolysaccharides which are transformed into new connective tissue by the young fibroblasts, the formation of which is also stimulated by echinacea.
Echinacea stimulates macrophage and T-cell activity Purified polysaccharides (EPS) prepared from echinacea possess a strong activating force on macrophages which then develop pronounced extracellular cytotoxicity against tumor targets. The activation is brought about by EPS alone and is independent of any cooperative effect with lymphocytes. The macrophages activated by EPS are also instrumental in the production and secretion of oxygen radicals and interleukin 1. EPS has no effect on T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes are only moderately stimulated. EPS has no toxicity.
In another study two polysaccharides were discovered stimulating T-cell activity--in fact twenty to thirty percent more than a very strong T-cell stimulator.
Echinacea stimulates phagocytosis
USDA researchers have also discovered a tumor-inhibiting property in echinacea, this one being an oncolytic hydrocarbon from the essential oil. Tumors inhibited were Walker's carcinosarcoma and lymphocytic leukemia. It was inactive in lymphoid leukemia.
Echinacea stimulates phagocytosis
Bacterial skin infections in humans have been rapidly and completely healed as the result of improvement of the phagocytosis rate.
Echinacea has antiphlogistic action
In a study of the antiphlogistic effect of echinacea, using the carrageenan and croton oil tests, it was found the echinacina B was more active in the later phase of the inflammatory response. This latter phase is reportedly characterized by vasoactive prostaglandin intermediate release from neutrophils after their interaction with carragenan. The substance also inhibited ear dermatitis induced by irritant croton oil, which is reportedly mediated also by arachidonic acid metabolites.
Echinacea may delay resorption of other active chemicals
A German patent reveals the presence of two factors, A & B, in echinacea. Factor A causes a cortisone-like stress and pyrogenic effects, while factor B has an antihyaluronidase effect and is thus recommended for detoxification of remedies or for prolongation of their effective time by delaying their resorption. Both factors are nontoxic. This intriguing hypothesis needs further verification.
Echinacea may be more effective than cortisone It has been found echinacin is sometimes more effective than cortisone. For example, streptococcal infection spreads rapidly in guinea pigs pretreated with cortisone, but is contained by echinacin. It has also been found 0.04 ml of fresh plant extract possesses a hyaluronidase inhibitory action equal to 1 mg of cortisone.
Echinacea increases properdin levels
Intravenous injections of echinacea (0.6 ml/kg of body weight) in rabbits initially decreased but subsequently greatly increased endogenous levels of properdin, a chemical thought to be involved in resistance to viral and bacterial infection.
Echinacea is antiviral
Alcohol and water extracts of echinacea, and echinacin, protect cells against virally induced canker sores, influenza and herpes by inducing an interferon-like mechanism.
Many of the above studies can be viewed as a simple verification of an early eclectic physician who observed over 100 blood counts from patients with infectious disease, mainly tuberculosis. Echinacea increased the phagocytic power of observed leukocytes. It also normalized the percentage count of neutrophils, and improved both hyperleukocytosis and leukopenia. The proportion of white cells to red cells normalized. The elimination of waste products was increased. This approach worked best in cases where no evidence of phagocytosis was present before the herb was administered. Heavy use of Echinacea may induce infertility in males. Incidentally, hyaluronidase is one of the three enzymes attached to the acrosomal membrane located on the head of the male spermatozoon. This enzyme attacks the intercellular matrix of the cumulus oophorus and clears a path to the zona pelucida, without which action the spermatozoon cannot bind to the zona and fertilization cannot take place. It would not be unreasonable to think, therefore, men taking large amounts of echinacea would experience some infertility.
Echinacea - Drug Interactions and Precautions
Possible Interactions
The anti-inflammatory activity of echinacea can be seriously inhibited by phenobarbital and certain other sedatives and hypnotics, such as chloral hydrate and meprobamate. This is also true of beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as propranolol.
Comments
There is evidence to show combining bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents will lower the effectiveness of the bacteriostatic agent. However, how this finding applies to herbal anti-infectives is still unknown.
Echinacea - Safety Factors & Toxicity
Echinacea has no known toxicity.
Echinacea - Preparation and Administration
Three times a day
Dried tuber and root: 1 gram Tea: Made of 1/2 tsp dried tuber or root
Fluid extract: 1:1 in 25% alcohol, 0.25-1 ml
Tincture: 1:5 in 45% alcohol, 2-4 ml
Note: This Herbal Preparation information is a summary of data from books and articles by various authors. It is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals.
Herbal Vocabulary
Sam Ibrahim, Owner
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Edmonton, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Abortifacient
Aconite
Agave
Agrimony
Alfalfa
Allspice
Aloe Vera Plant
Alterative
Ambrette
American Ginseng SE*
Analgesic
Anesthetic
Angelica
Anise
Anodyne
Anorectic (Anorexic)
Anthelminthic
Antiemetic
Antigalactagogue
Antilithic
Antiperiodic
Antipyretic
Antirheumatics
Antiseptic
Antispasmodic
Antitussive
Aphrodisiac
Apple Tree
Arnica
Artichoke Plant
Artichoke SE*
Asafetida
Astragalus SE*
Astragalus
Astringent
Atractylodes
Balmony
Barberry
Basil Plant
Bay
Bayberry
Bear's Garlic
Belladonna
Bennet
Betel Nut
Bidens
Bilberry SE*
Bilberry
Birch
Birthwort
Black Radish
Black Horehound
Black Cohosh
Black Catechu
Black Walnut Tree
Black Haw
Black Mustard
Bladderwrack
Blessed Thistle
Blood Purifier
Bloodroot
Blue Flag
Blue Violet
Blue Cohosh
Boldo
Boneset
Borage
Brahmi
Brindall Berry
Broom
Buchu
Buck Bean
Buckthorn
Buckwheat Plant
Bupleurum
Burdock
Butcher's Broom
Butcher's Broom SE* | Butter Bur
Butternut
California Poppy
Calumba
Canaigre
Caraway
Cardamom
Cardiac Tonic
Carminative
Carrot Seeds
Cascara Sagrada SE*
Cascara Sagrada
Cascarilla
Cathartic
Catnip
Cayenne
Celery Seed
Centaury
Chamomile
Chamomile SE*
Chaparral
Chestnut Tree
Chickweed
Chicory
Chinese Wormwood
Chiretta
Chlorella
Cholagogue
Choleretic
Cinchona
Cinnamon
Cinquefoil
Cleavers
Cloves
Cnidium
Codonopsis
Cola
Coleus
Colpachi
Comfrey
Common Groundsel
Condurango
Conkers
Coriander
Cornsilk
Cotton
Couchgrass
Counterirritant
Cowslip
Crampbark
Cudweed
Damiana
Dandelion
Demulcent
Devil's Claw SE*
Devil's Club
Devil's Claw
Diaphoretic
Dill Plant
Diuretic
Dong Kwai SE*
Dong Quai
Echinacea
Echinacea SE*
Elder
Elecampane
Emetic
Emmenagogue
Emollient
Ephedra SE*
Eryngo
Eucalyptus
European Mistletoe
European Goldenrod
Evening Primrose
Everlasting
Expectorant
Eyebright | False Unicorn Root
Fennel
Fenugreek
Feverfew
Feverfew SE*
Fiber-Natural
Figwort
Fo-Ti
Fringe-Tree Bark
Fumitory
Galactagogue
Galangal
Ganoderma
Gardenia
Garlic Plant
Garlic SE*
Gentian
Geranium
Germander
Ginger SE*
Ginger Plant
Ginkgo Biloba SE*
Ginkgo
Ginseng
Goat's Rue
Goldenseal
Goldenseal SE*
Gotu Kola SE*
Gotu Kola
Great Burnet
Greater Celandine
Ground Ivy
Guaiac
Guar Gum Plant
Guarana
Guarana SE*
Guarea
Gum Plant
Gymnema
Gypsy Wort
Hartstongue Fern
Hawthorn
Hawthorne SE*
Heather
Hemp Agrimony
Hepatic
Hibiscus
Hops SE*
Hops
Horsetail SE*
Horsetail
Hungarian Oak Galls
Huperzia
Hydrangea
Hypnotic
Hyssop
Iceland Moss
Ipecac
Irish Moss
Jaborandi
Jamaica Dogwood
Jambul
Jasmine
Jequerity
Jojoba
Juniper
Kava Kava
Kelp Plant
Khat
Korean Ginseng SE*
Lady's Slipper
Lavender
Laxative
Lemon Balm
Lemongrass
Licorice Root
Licorice SE*
Lily Of The Valley | Lime/Linden
Lobelia
Lomatium
Lovage
Lungwort
Ma Huang
Magnolia
Maidenhair Fern
Male Fern
Mandrake
Maria Thistle
Marigold
Marshmallow
Matico
Meadowsweet
Melilot
Milk Thistle SE*
Milkweed
Motherwort
Mouse Ear
Mugwort
Muira-Puama
Mullein
Myrrh
Nervine
Nettle
Nettles SE*
Nutmeg
Nutrition Plus Pharmacy
Oats
Onion Plant
Oregano
Oregon Grape
Orris
Osha
Oxytocic
Pale Catechu
Papaya Tree
Para Cress
Parsley Piert
Parsley Plant
Passion Flower
Passion Flower SE*
Pau D'arco
Pellitory Of The Wall
Pennyroyal
Peppermint
Pipsissewa
Plantain Tree
Pleurisy Root
Pokeroot
Poplar
Prickly Pear Cactus
Prickly Ash
Psyllium Seed
Pulsatilla
Pumpkin Plant
Pygeum
Pygeum SE*
Quassia
Queen-Of-The-Meadow
Quillaia
Radish Plant
Ragwort
Red Raspberry Plant
Red Sage
Red Clover
Restorative
Rhatany
Rhubarb Plant
Roman Chamomile
Rose Hips
Rosemary
Rubifacient
Rue
Safflower
Saffron
Sage | Sarsaparilla
Sassafras
Saw Palmetto
Saw Palmetto SE*
Schisandra SE*
Sedative
Senega Snakeroot
Senna
Shepard's Purse
Shitake
Shizandra
Sialagogue
Siberian Ginseng SE*
Silverweed
Skullcap
Skunk Cabbage
Slippery Elm Bark
Southernwood
Squaw Vine
Squill
St. Johnswort
St. John's Wort SE*
Stevia
Stillingia
Stimulant
Stomachic
Stone Root
Suma SE*
Sundew
Sweet Flag
Tannic Acid
Tansy
Tarragon
Tea Tree
Thorn Apple
Thuja
Thyme
Tonic
Tormentil
Turmeric
Turmeric SE*
Ume
Uva Ursi
Uva Ursi SE*
Valerian
Valerian SE*
Vermicide
Vermifuge
Vervain
Visnaga
Vitex Agnus Castus SE*
Vitex
Vulnerary
Wahoo
White Dead Nettle
White Pine
White Willow Bark
White Bryony
White Oak
White Willow SE*
White Pond Lily
Wild Lettuce
Wild Cherry Bark
Wild Indigo
Wintergreen
Witch Hazel
Wood Betony
Wormseed
Wormwood
Yam Plant
Yarrow
Yellow Dock
Yerba Mate
Yohimbe
Yucca |
*SE = Standardized Extract
Neutriceuticals from Herbs
Alison M. Stephen, Ph.D.
College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
In recent years, consumers in Canada as in other western countries, have begun to look at herbal products and traditional herbal medicines as a means of treating numerous medical disorders and for maintaining health. This move away from accepted medical practices into those that are less well documented is not confined to herbal remedies, but is part of a larger interest by the public in a variety of types of compounds which may confer health benefits when consumed and which are present in plants of many kinds, including common fruits, vegetables, grains, and spices. What is known of the beneficial effects of accepted nutrients is being supplemented with information on these other compounds present in plant products, such that there is likely to be an explosion of knowledge about the constituents of plants in the next few decades.
Interest in these "natural products" is a result of a growing concern and responsibility by the public about their own health. Those who are developing or investigating new plant products are keen to be able to promote their benefits to such an interested public. They wish to be able to state the health benefits the products are said to have, both on the product packages and in advertising. In doing so, they face the regulations for food and drug claims and find that it is generally not possible to make most claims of health benefit. Regulations regarding what can and cannot be said vary from country to country, and in Canada, regulations are such that no health claims for foods are permitted.
In order to be able to make a health claim, the approach used by the pharmaceutical industry for drug products is advised. This entails detailed biochemical investigation of the product and its constituent compounds and rigorous efficacy and toxicity testing in both animals and human subjects. Such testing is expensive and there is concern by many in the fields of herbal products, nutriceuticals and functional foods that consumers will not be able to be informed about the potential benefit of new plant products because of regulatory requirements. In the field of herbal products, there is the added belief that many products have been used for centuries without harm and hence sophisticated human testing is unnecessary.
Steps in the Development of a Natural Product
Government approval of a health claim would require proof of a causal relationship between a nutrient, drug or other active compound and a disease condition. "Acceptance of a causal relationship" can only be achieved through careful scientific evaluation with unambiguous conclusions.
There would appear to be a number of steps in the development of a natural product, including those from herbs, which need to be satisfied to establish a link between the product and a health effect.
1. Identification of a plant/crop with biological activity
As is clear from the many presentations at this conference of different herbal products being studied at present in western Canada, there is no shortage of potential new sources of plants with biological activity.
2. Identification and characterization of the active principle(s) in the plant
It is important that the active principle or principles in the plant which have biological activity be identified. Since many herbal medicines may have a number of active compounds, such identification is not easy; moreover the types of compounds with biological activity can often be complex organic materials present in very small concentrations, and hence may require relatively sophisticated equipment for their analysis such as gas chromatography (GC) or High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). However, in order to know what is producing an effect, it is necessary to carry out such analysis and to determine how much of the compound can bring about an effect.
3. Variation in content of the active principles(s)
Different varieties of the same plant can contain varying concentrations of the principle known to have a biological effect. In addition, changes in growing conditions can alter the content of the active principle(s). It is important to know the extent of this variability and to determine the content of active principle in any product sold. For many herbal products this is presently not the case and as a result, the content of the compounds which bring about health effects may vary enormously.
It is unacceptable not to know the content of active ingredients in a product which is being promoted for a health effect. It is no less important to know variability for herbal products than it is to know variability for regularly consumed food products. Consumers expect that when they buy 1% milk, that it contains 1% fat, not 2%, nor 4%, nor 0.1%. Similarly, a high fibre breakfast cereal is expected to be high fibre every time it is purchased. Although analysis of active compounds in herbal products may be more involved than the analysis of some nutrients, it is no less necessary to determine the concentration of different batches of herbal products than for any other food product. The cost of such analysis is compensated by the high price for such products; analysis on a regular basis must be considered as part of production over the long term.
4. Examination of biological activity and efficacy of a natural product or its active component(s)
Claims are made about the physiological and biochemical effects of most herbal products. It is important if such claims are to be believed that carefully designed and controlled studies are carried out to determine whether the effects claimed to occur really do occur. Testing of efficacy of a natural product or its active principle can be carried out using:
1. In vitro experiments
2. Animal experiments
3. Human experiments
Much knowledge can be gained from in vitro and animal experimentation; but ultimately, if the product is to be used for human effects and human health problems, it must be tested in human subjects. There are significant differences between all animal species and humans, and in effect in an animal cannot be assumed to occur in the human body as well. Common quotes like "known to prevent cancer" are usually based only on animal work. The assumption that compounds that protect against cancer in animals can then prevent cancer in humans is not a given.
Human experiments are costly, particularly if they are done under strictly controlled conditions, but there is no way that efficacy in humans can be determined without doing them. Many of the systems and physiological processes which herbal products are said to affect are also affected by other components in the diet. Hence, in order to determine unambiguously that an effect is due to the product under test, the best way is to control for other variables that might influence the result, or in other words, to control the rest of the diet. If this is done, any effect seen will be due to the test product only.
A clear example of where there was a huge economic impact of a badly controlled study, was the publication of negative effects of oat bran in January 1990. In a study where diet was not controlled, oat bran showed no effect on serum cholesterol levels1, although many previous studies had demonstrated significant cholesterol lowering effects2-4. This highly publicized study resulted in a dramatic reduction in oat bran sales with a major impact on the food companies selling oat products and on oat growers. The deficiencies of this study have since been recognised, such that oats have recovered their image. Oat bran has recently been passed by the FDA as having demonstrable effects on cholesterol such that health claims can now be made for it in the United States.
Badly controlled studies give ambiguous results, and they can often miss effects which might have been seen if rigorous controls were in place. Another example of this problem can be seen in a comparison of results of studies where soy and flax have been fed to human subjects. Both plants contain phytoestrogens, in soy in the form of isoflavones, in flax as lignans. In a human study where diet was controlled and a known amount of soy was fed to women over two menstrual cycles, changes in serum hormones, progesterone, Lutemising Hormone (LH), and Follicle Stimulation Hormone (FSH) were seen, as was a lengthening of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycles.5 These are significant changes and could indicate a protective role for soy through its phytoestrogen content, against breast cancer. The dose of the phytoestrogens daidzeim and genistein were also known exactly and so the size of effect from a given dose could be characterized. Studies with flax, which has considerable economic interest for Canada, have not shown similar effects. Those effects may not occur with flax; however, it is impossible to tell if this is so, or if they have simply been "missed" because in the flax studies, diet was not controlled.
There are few herbal products which have been studied using controlled conditions. For those where human studies have been conducted at all, ambiguity in results can often be seen. A good example is a study of ginseng where interpretation of effects was difficult because "This was an open study and the intake of concomitant drugs (eg. Caffeine) confounded interpretation of the data.
In order for the consumer to trust those making claims, efficacy studies must be rigorous. The consequences of not being so can be substantial.
5. Toxicity of natural product or active principle(s)
There are three characteristics of a product which must be examined in relation to toxicity.
1. Increased doses of the product or active principle above the usual or recommended amounts.
2. Effects of compounds other than the active principle which are present in the product.
3. Chemicals used in the purification or treatment of the product to isolate the active principle.
When positive health effects for a product are suggested, consumers often believe that greater consumption than that recommended will confer even greater benefit. The tendency to increase dose above recommended is therefore common for nutrients, nutriceuticals, and herbal products. The possibility of adverse effects must therefore be explored. As with efficacy testing, this ultimately must be examined in human subjects, but can often be done within the same protocol as efficacy testing. Analysis of products to determine the presence and concentrations of compounds with possible adverse effects must also be carried out, and careful examination of all chemicals, particularly solvents, used in purification processes must be done.
Adverse effects can occur due to the direct effects on the human body of compounds in three groups above. Alternatively compounds may interfere with other nutrients taken into the body in a variety of ways:
1. Destruction of nutrients
2. Reducing availability of nutrients
3. Interfering with utilization of nutrients
4. Interfering with digestion
5. Decreasing food intake7
The ideal situation would be where the effect of new products and compounds on other nutrients would be known. This information should be obtained over time to ensure that deleterious effects on nutrient supply to the body does not occur.
6. Assessment of natural product for use in human health and medicine
The assumption is often made that if positive effects of foods, nutrients, or other compounds on physiological or biochemic processes in the body are seen, then this implies that the product, food or nutrient under test will have benefits for human health and disease. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. In order to determine if there is a significant effect on the incidence of a disease, studies which are designed to look at disease directly have to be done. A good example of where all information on efficacy, as well as observational relationships between nutrients and disease, suggested a positive effect is seen with the connection between antioxidants and cancer.
The antioxidant vitamins, Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), Vitamin E (alpha tocopherol) and Vitamin A, in the form of Beta carotene, are all well characterized chemically and have all been shown to reduce oxidation in vitro and in animal and human studies, and to show negative associations between intake and serum levels of vitamin, and a variety of types of cancer, as well as coronary heart disease. In 1994, a study entitled the alpha tocopherol Beta carotene study (ATBC) study, was published.8 This was an investigation of the effect of long term administration (6 years) of a daily dose of Vitamin E and Beta carotene to Finnish smokers, and to look at the subsequent risk of lung cancer. Contrary to the anticipated result, it was found that there was no protective effect of either vitamin and that in one age group, the beta carotene treated group actually showed a higher incidence of cancer compared to controls.
Critics of this study suggest that the follow-up period of 6 years is too short to see effects on disease incidence, and that the dose of vitamins may have been too low. Nonetheless, this is the only prospective study of antioxidants, and shows that even though physiological evidence may be positive, effects on disease do not always follow. As indicated by Hemekens: "Based on the totality of available evidence, antioxidant vitamins represent a promising but as yet unproven means to reduce risks of various chronic diseases.9
Effects of herbal products on disease may be very difficult to demonstrate. Studies such as the ATBC study are extremely expensive and time-consuming. The problem is that without such evidence, it cannot be said without reservation that a protective effect exists, and hence cautionary words should always be used in statements about positive effects; in other words, use of words like "may" or "might" instead of "will" or "can." For many foods, nutrients or products for which scientific evidence now suggest protective effects are based on the first five steps in the six given above. It is only over considerable time that actual disease prevention evidence is derived, and hence when statements about disease can be made unequivocally. For nearly all dietary agents, an element of doubt still exists.
Traditional use of Herbal Products
Herbal products and medicines are somewhat unique from nutriceuticals and functional foods in that many have been used for centuries in other societies as medicinal treatments or for disease prevention. As a result, the need for scientific proof of positive effects would seem to many to be reductant. However, there are several issues with this. Firstly, the active principle is often assumed, rather than determined. If wrongly identified, an active principle then isolated to give a more potent product may not bring about the purported effect. If there are a number of active principles, isolation of one may not result in the other active principles being present at all.
In terms of health effects, there are examples where traditional medicines are now recognized as having harmful side effects, the clearest example being comfrey. Although comfrey is widely used in the United States, and has been used as a treatment for gastric ulcers, haemorrhoids, and bronchial congestion and inflammations for over 2000 years, there are serious concerns about its use. Animal studies have demonstrated liver damage following comfrey ingestion and there is a possible risk of cancer.6 Established used of a product does not therefore guarantee its safety, or its usefulness.
Costs of Evaluation of Natural Products
Achieving rigorous scientific evaluation of a product is not without substantial cost. Those developing new products or establishing new markets for traditional ones may not be familiar with the animal and human testing required and may view the cost as a barrier to progress. New initiatives to cover the cost of this testing need to be pursued. For example, agricultural agencies need to recognise that their mandate extends beyond the development of a product. Since the product is being aimed at the health market, testing for health effects becomes part of the overall initiative, and hence those capable of carrying out the efficacy and toxicity testing should be able to approach agricultural agencies for funds. Matching programs need also to be pursued. Joint industry/agency funding is a popular new way to achieve a number of goals and scientific investigations of herbal products and nutriceuticals could fit well under these programs. Finally, the industries associated with development of new products whether food, pharmaceutical, or health food, need to consider allocating funds for testing of products. There is no doubt that substantial funds are required, and ways have to be found to secure these.
The Need for Dialogue
Those working in agriculture and agri-food research need to work with those in the health professions if the health effects of new products are to investigated thoroughly. There needs to be an understanding of the motivations of each group; dialogue and working together is essential.
In his book Methodology of Research on Medicinal Plants, Cave wrote:
"The methodology of research into medicinal plants must be vigorous. Often, simple technical errors undermine the value of research on natural products. There are many who believe that a little rapid research is sufficient to confirm the reputation of a plant, and then attempt to proceed from there towards lucrative industrial production.
If research is to be effective, it must be performed logically and systemically by a multidisciplinary team. The team needs to include, at least, a pharmacognosist, a systematic botanist, a pharmaceutical chemist, and a pharmacologist. Each has a different training, a different vocabulary, and a different responsibility in the team."
And also
"Let me conclude by saying that plants remain a reservoir of potential for the discovery of new substances with valuable pharmacological activities. These substances can be used in their natural state or can serve as models for pharmaceutical chemists to synthesise new compounds if even greater therapeutic value. To find these substances, it is necessary to search and investigate rigorously and methodically, to know how to work in multidisciplinary teams, and to have a little luck and a lot of passion."
There is enormous potential for the development of natural products which have benefits for the maintenance of human health. There is great enthusiasm at present to develop these, and the consumer is receptive to the concept that there are compounds in foods and herbal products which can confer health benefits. It is important, however, that, in the development of such products, good science prevails, such that statements of efficacy are supported by good research and that adverse effects have been investigated and documented adequately. The interests and health of the public must be a paramount concern at all stages.
My Experience with Growing Herbs in the Greenhouse and Future Research Possibilities
Anita Schreyer, Owner and Operator
Down to Earth Greenhouses
Grande Prairie, AB
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Who am I?
My name is Anita, and I run a greenhouse business in Northern Alberta just north of the town of Sexsmith, where the weather has been known to get as cold as -55°C and lower. This is our third year in business, our second year growing herbs, and the first year growing herbs through the winter months.
I am not a horticulturist nor do I have any degrees in this particular area. As a matter of fact, my background is in psychology. I do stress management workshops, and crisis intervention for several organizations and businesses. Now I mostly do stress management and crisis intervention for my plants!
Mirza asked me to come and speak today and share with you my experience or should I put it, my adventures in growing herbs in the greenhouse. I am honoured to be able to do this, and hope that I will either inspire you to try some of what we have done or at least think about it. I will talk a little about organic pest control and what we have thus far learned about it. Please ask me any questions.
Before I start I would like to ask, How many people here today operate a greenhouse? How many herbs in a greenhouse? How many grow throughout the entire year?
How did I get into this business? Having a Dutch background with parents who owned a greenhouse business for several years, my husband offered to help me start a small greenhouse. I promised him it would remain small with just one greenhouse, I lied! Today we have progressed to three greenhouses and growing.
About the Greenhouse
Last spring with the inspiration of a friend and fellow worker we decided to try culinary herbs. We discovered that this was not only fun but darn right tasty. Our kids never knew what surprise was in store for them in their meal. For the most part they seemed to like it, but often inspected their food suspiciously.
Because our customers demanded a year round supply of herbs, we had to make the difficult decision to run the greenhouse throughout the winter months, in order to keep our herb crop going. It was then we did another expansion and added a third greenhouse. These are arch rib greenhouses giving me over 4000 sq. ft. to grow and learn in. (Thus far we earned every gray hair my husband grew!)
(Slides accompanied the following)
What a year to start growing through the winter months. Mother Nature dealt us one of the coldest winters on record in years (of -50°C and lower).
In wintering our herb crop, our idea was to design a simplified system. We wanted to see if indoor gardening on the ground in winter time would work.
Thus we began: Because of the high cost of heat in the north, we designed a large wood burning broiler system to heat the floors, and installed a natural gas heating system as a backup. This we hoped would save us money on heat bills. Although at present we find this to be true, wood burning is one of the most labour intensive ways to do it. Every weekend we cut the dead fall out of our forest (we have a quarter section). We suspect in ten years we will have the cleanest forest in the neighbourhood.
Anyway, we stoke the furnace which holds a wheelbarrow of wood at each fill every five hours around the clock.
Our grow bins range from 4' to 10-12' in length. Each has been filled with different soil combinations. This we did to learn what the ideal mix is for the herbs.
This consists of black peat moss from a local farmer (high in calcium), sand, perlite, vermiculite and finally, a bag of either sheep or steer manure. We learned that during summer months the mixes must be heavier than winter months as the humidity and air circulation changes.
50% black peat
50% sand
60 litres vermiculite
60 litres perilite
20 kg manure
In having arch rib greenhouses, we had to deal with the low ceiling and the humidity, our fan systems are both suspended on the upper walls and also they are installed along the floors. The air flows in one direction from east to west on the entire length on one wall and opposite on the other wall. This is because the greenhouses are attached lengthwise instead of side by side (for practical and economic reasons).
Locations of Herbs
We learned that the herbs must be strategically placed according to light, heat, and air circulation in the greenhouse. Some are more hardy in cooler locations such as parsley, lemon balm, anise-hyssop, etc. and some need more heat and light such as Rosemary, basil and thyme.
We have learned a lot during these few winter months. Such as the regrowth rate of some of the herbs, disease problems, and we are still learning about insect problems.
Insect Control
Aphids
Has anyone here experienced Aphids in their plants? Last fall we found Aphids in amongst our flowers in Greenhouse #1. In keeping with our friend Jody Aitkenhead who is a certified organic grower, we were compelled to treat this problem organically.
We decided on the biological warfare approach. We brought in over 5000 California ladybugs. Because the packaging was faulty, the ladybugs began their escape while enroute--this included the plane, the courier truck--to the delight of the courier driver-- and finally, the office where they were delivered for me for pickup--the Sexsmith town office. I received a frantic phone call from the women working there. I will never forget the sight when I walked in--the entire staff were in hot pursuit of these little creatures to try to retrieve them for me.
There is an interesting discovery we made about Aphids that I would like to share with you. They are very versatile to extreme temperature changes. In fact, an artist friend of mine found, as she was collecting leaves to make special paper, to have a garden full of aphids including some in the plastic pail she carried. Her initial plan was to dry the leaves using the microwave oven, she decided to leave the aphids in the pail with the leaves thinking the microwave would kill them. To her shock and surprise they not only survived on low, but turned a bright orange colour.
We know that during cold temperatures they turn light brown and move slowly. They remain the regular green colour in more favourable temperatures.
Wintering our herbs from summer to winter was neat, but what was not so great is the fact the insects thought it was neat too! Insects such as Aphids, whiteflies, and the dreaded slugs.
Our plan of action was to abandon the ladybugs and start using a more direct approach, we called in the swat team! Calling a time out from this mini Olympic event we chose to tackle the problem in another direction; by spraying using various combinations of Safers soap, bleach and vinegar. This was started early December, just before the cold snap. But before I tell you more. . .
I have to tell you about a wonderful friend and fellow grower Doreen Lesko who grows strictly annuals and perennial flowers. Doreen decided to experiment too by adding a diluted solution of bleach and organic soap to her regular watering system.
Now my friend is a unique individual as well as she's a very practical person especially in measuring the solutions of bleach and soap. She uses what we call the Lesco Accu Measuring System by pouring in bleach into her treatment containers and counting to five! Anybody here use this system?
We discovered that (after 3 months of this treatment) she has absolutely no insects (including fungus Kants) found to date in her greenhouse and all her plants are strong and healthy.
Towards the end of December we noticed the problem of insects returning. We then contacted Mirza and discussed our situation. His suggestion was to use hydrogen peroxide 35% food grade in addition to the safers soap.
Our solutions are mixed in 45 gallon barrels using a mister nozzle at the end of our sprayer to treat the greenhouse.
Solution Mixtures
Barrel #1 5 oz Hydrogen Peroxide 35% food grade
2 1/2 Litre Safers soap
to 45 gallons of water
Barrel #2 3 Litres Bleach (regular household)
5 litres Vinegar (regular household)
to 45 gallons of water
We began the spraying campaign on a weekly basis using this solution. The aphid population went down to where we had extreme difficulty finding any. The whiteflies were more elusive, therefore they were hard to control. In order to destroy them they needed to be in direct contact of the spray. This required more spraying under the leafs, often drenching the plants. Fortunately, we have had little or no damage to the plants to date.
Another friend and fellow grower offered the idea of using ducks in the greenhouse to eat the slugs. Somehow we thought that would be as effective as our swat team.
We even had a unusual visitor in the middle of January who we thought was Mother Nature's contribution to the insect control problems, a full grown muskrat! After quick deliberation we decided this was not insect control but an animal who snuck in while we were moving in firewood. The muskrat thought it was time to take a break from winter and come and bathe in the warmth and herbs in the greenhouse. Yes you guessed it. The mini Olympics were on! And we were not using fly swatters either! He was most determined to stay, but fortunately after a period of time he tired of the chase and went through the open door.
Now back to the task of insect control. Because of the white fly problem, we increased the portion of hydrogen peroxide by 1/2. So far it has proven successful, but as the plants in the greenhouse grow more lush and full, it is becoming more difficult to clean all the plants thoroughly for whitefly. To date we have increased our leaf wash spraying campaign to twice weekly. This has decreased the population of whitefly, so in keeping with this we spray twice weekly as a maintenance. It is too early to tell if this will be effective as we need to research this over a period of time.
Slugs
The slug problem on the other hand has proven even more challenging. We found them in multiples among our garlic chives. We repeatedly sprayed with Safers soap and hydrogen peroxide to no avail. Wishing to conduct this in a scientific manner, I placed two tupperware containers (finally put to some good use!) on the table. We plucked out several slugs and placed them in each container. In one we treated by spraying a solution of water, vinegar, and bleach. The other we treated by spraying with a doubled solution of water, safers soap and hydrogen peroxide. We found that both irritated the slugs but did not in fact kill them, so I kept increasing the concentrations. I continued to increase the hydrogen peroxide, but still the slug lived on. Frustrated and determined to win I doused the creature with full strength hydrogen peroxide. To my surprise, if it was able to manoeuvre out of the foam,it still survived.
I then concentrated on the water, vinegar and bleach solutions. I found that increasing the vinegar had little effect, as a matter of fact, I used such a strong solution of vinegar that I was sure to pickle the little devil.
In another attempt I decreased the vinegar and increased the bleach. This had a surprising effect. It worked! The slug died instantly. However, I was concerned with the heavy concentrations on the plants, so I started with a new solution gradually increasing the vinegar and bleach. Proportionally less vinegar had to be used with a slight increase in bleach.
Testing this solution on all our crop has so far proven safe, although we feel more research needs to be done in this area. We have not had enough time to observe long term effects. The only reaction we have thus far detected has been a few odd leaves turning yellow, in particular the parsley leaves. We clipped these leaves and had no further damage. We do not recommend this as a regular treatment.
Some still might consider this too strong for plants. I guess my suggestion is, it would have to be an individual decision whether or not to go this route.
We also place large salt granduals around on walkways and in between bins to prevent slugs from contaminating other stock. We also use ashes from a wood stove on walkways, and carefully place some in between bins.
One important thing I would like to convey to you today is: believe as a grower whether your growing herbs indoors or outdoors, that it is important to keep a good sense of humour.
Recycling
We would like to encourage every grower to recycle. For example: we will go through 50, 000 trays, over 5,000 flats, 6-10,000 pots (4'' - 3 gals). Picture this if you will in your local land fill.
At our greenhouse we promote recycling to our customer in the spring. By bringing back their trays, flats, pots and any other plant packaging, we in return give them a discount on one of their purchases.
One lady I recall was so happy to discover we had this recycling program, she returned an hour later with a pickup truck load of flats, trays and pots. We lucked out because she also brought beautiful clay planters that were in excellent condition.
We will wash and sterilize anything that can be reused. This may be time consuming, but with a little elbow grease and a few helpful friends it not only takes less time but it saves us money.
Remember recycling is good for the environment, saves you money, and your customers appreciate it.
The Future of Herbal Drugs
D. V. C. Awang, Ph.D., F.C.I.C.,
MediPlant Natural Products Consulting Services
Ottawa, Ontario
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
The promising gleam in the future of herbal drugs is shadowed by the gloom attaching to a pervading lack of regulatory control and the attendant lack of assurance of botanical identity, purity, quality and strength. Numerous instances of misbranding, adulteration and substitution have been detected in herbal products, resulting in lack of medicinal effectiveness and occasional poisonings. This state of affairs has recommended that consumers exercise careful choice in the selection of commercial formulations and place great reliance on the reputation of manufacturers, particularly those having recognized experience with particular plant materials.
Canada once enjoyed the reputation of being one of the most progressive and scientifically informed regulatory constituencies. However, cancellation in 1991 of its research effort in natural products has considerably eroded Canada's status in this area by aborting the development of relevant analytical methodology and its capacity for scientific surveillance of the herbal marketplace. No program for assessment of commercial plant products currently exists, nor is there now an experienced and knowledgeable corps within the Canadian government scientific complex, which would be capable of dealing with the situation. Ironically it was in 1991 also that World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines were finalized at a WHO Consultation in Munich, Germany, 19-21 June; these finalized guidelines were presented to the Sixth International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities held in Ottawa later that year (October). The guidelines provide an admirable framework for establishment of a cohesive internationally harmonized program for herbal medicine control.
Identity
Assurance of botanical identity is probably the most important challenge for herbal regulation. Certification of seed and/or vegetative plant material would seem the logical approach to this end; growers cannot be relied upon to ensure correct botanical identification without the assistance of qualified botanists, whether individually registered or associated with recognized botanical institutes. The WHO Guidelines propose the maintenance of "Voucher specimens, representing each lot of plant material processed. And (that these) should be stored for at least a ten year period. A lot number should be assigned and this should appear on the product label." This provision, applied universally, may be too ambitious and at least in the initial phase of implementation could be confined to products bearing DIN; it certainly should apply to expensive products, such as feverfew, which are allowed specific therapeutic claims for prevalent disorders.
An often significant subtext of identity characterization is chemotypical variation, often not associated with easily distinguishable morphological characters. Chemical profiling involving characteristic markers is often necessitated for confident distinction.
The onus of botanical authentication could vary with the inter-relationship between grower, supplier, fabricator and manufacturer; this last element involved with the packaging and labelling of formulations, and with whom ultimate responsibility would seem reasonably to reside.
The Bases for Safety Assessment and Medicinal Claims
There is an insistent need for establishment of clear and sensible criteria for evaluation of toxic risk associated with botanicals, as well as requirements for acceptability of health and medicinal claims for herbal drugs. Some salient examples from the Canadian historical experience in these areas should serve to illustrate some apparent deficiencies and inconsistencies.
The Delaney clause adopted by the U.S. Congress prohibits human consumption of any chemical found to be tumorigenic or carcinogenic in laboratory animals, thereby restricting sale of safrole-containing sassafras. This, however, does not prevent the sale of anise, basil, nutmeg, mace and black pepper (which contain low levels of safrole) presumably because good sense dictates that the levels of that toxic principle in these latter substances are too low to exert any appreciable effect on human health. Similar good sense should inform judgment of plant products such as basil oil (proposed for prohibition by the European Union --EU-- on account of the carcinogenic potential of estragole (methyl chavicol) and thujone-containing plants such as tansy and wormwood. The vacillation evident in the chameleon-like lists (Appendix II) of plants deemed as adulterants ("unacceptable for use in or as foods") by the Food Directorate of Health Canada's Health Protection Branch HPB) is revealing. The deliberations of the Expert Advisory Committee on Herbs and Botanical Preparations (EACHBP) led to a parliamentary submission (Schedule No. 705) vial Canada Gazette Part 1 (Dec. 19, 1992). Feverfew, anachronistically designated as Chrysanthemum parthenium, would be allowed as a flavorant, if free of santonin--not a recognized constituent of the plant! Appendix VII of the Second Report of the EACHBP (October, 1993) list feverfew as "Generally Acceptable as Food(s)."
The Drugs Directorate regulation of Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica, syn Hydorcotyle asiatica) is, to say the least, bewildering and undoubtedly reflective of historical changes in policy and personnel. While the traditional indications for both oral and topical use, as a healing agent, for ulcers and wounds are not acceptable, a Notice of Compliance was granted in 1991 for a product containing a standardized Gotu Kola extract in combination with antiseptic adjuvants. HPB acknowledged effectiveness as a cicatrizing agent, available only by prescription. The Drugs Directorate Ingredient Policy Statement (IPS) of that very year notes that "Centella asiatica extract and its active principles are listed on Schedule F and are therefore prescription-only drugs," the IPS further notes that "one of its principles -asiaticoside -- is under suspicion as a potential carcinogen." This judgment is apparently based on the results of single study published in 1972, which reported on the tumorigenicity/carcinogencity of asiaticoside and the vesicant cantharidin, a constituent of Spanish fly. Asiaticoside was "classified as a weak tumor promoter in the hairless mouse epidermis." "It also seems to be very weakly carcinogenic..." However, since asiaticoside was applied to the mice's shin in benzene solution, the solvent could well have been an appreciable contributor to development of skin sarcomas and papillomas in 2.5% of the test animals. Professor Varro E. Tyler, author of The Honest Herbal, former Dean of Pharmacy at Purdue University, and currently Lilly Distinguished Professor of Pharmacognosy at that institution, has expressed the opinion that "Gotu Kola...eaten by the ton as a vegetable in Sri Lanka and related areas...is as harmful...as head lettuce." Meanwhile a prominent international cosmetic firm has been widely marketing a formulation containing Gotu Kola extract, unaware of its prescription-drug status in Canada.
Health and Medicinal Claims
Take Ginseng, Ginkgo and GLA (gamma-linolenic acid), for examples. The international disharmony in recognizing health and medicinal claims is obvious in the varied positions espoused by different national regulatory agencies.
Almost all European constituencies permit for ginseng products the claim of potential for aid, particularly among the aged, in conditions associated with a lack of mental and/or physical vitality. However, to the best of my knowledge, Canada has granted only one DIN for a ginseng product. Pharmaton (now a subsidiary of Boehringer-Ingleheim) of Switzerland, acquired in 1990 a DIN for a Panax ginseng extract (GINSANA) and was allowed the following claims:
- Improvement of exercise capability in individuals with low physical endurance due to prolonged activity or convalescence.
- May also help to improve visual and auditory reaction times and two-hand coordination, where such functions have been impaired by aging.
These claims are consistent with the judgment of Paul Knipschild, the eminent Dutch epidemiologist, who in 1988, published a meta-analysis of the best available human studies on ginseng for the treatment of "elderly people with vitality problems".
Knipschild and his then colleague, Jos Kleijnen, also conducted a meta-analysis of 40 trials on ginkgo for cerebral insufficiency -- 8 of these trials were judged to have been well performed--and compared the effectiveness of standardized leaf extract with that evident in trials of co-dergocrine, a conventional pharmaceutical widely registered for the same indication. The analysis found the two sets of studies to be of comparable quality. They also assessed the effectiveness of Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) in treatment of intermittent claudication (peripheral atherosclerosis); GBE compared favourable with pentoxyfilline (Trental), the drug of choice in standard medical treatment. The two Dutch epidemiologists regard intermittent claudication and cerebral insufficiency to be "the most promising indications" for GBE treatment. Again, while such claims are widely approved in continental Europe, Canada has not so far approved any therapeutic claim for a ginkgo product; however, sale of GBE as a food (more accurately a "non-drug") was recently officially sanctioned by the Foods Directorate of HPB --even though such a product has no history of use as a food!
The comparative regulatory situation respecting GLA-rich seed oils is also revealing. The leading commercial products contain oil from the seeds of borage (Borago officinalis) and evening primrose (Oenothera biennis). Deficiency of gamma-linolenic acid, a precursor of prostaglandin E and other eicosanoid metabolic regulators, has been implicated in a number of human health disorders. Many claims for improvement in such disorders, following GLA supplementation, have been made; prominent among which conditions have been atopic eczema, multiple sclerosis (MS), premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and diabetic neuropathy. However, the vast majority of published clinical trials have been criticized, mainly on the basis of methodological defects Notwithstanding, evidence of symptomatic relief, particularly in the cases of diabetic neuropathy, atopic eczema and mastalgia, recommend the conduct of more careful studies. Nonetheless, the U.K. Department of Health has approved an evening primrose oil product for the treatment of atopic eczema and mastalgia. Canada's HPB in agreement with Kleijnen has not approved these specific therapeutic applications but has awarded DIN to both borage and evening primrose oil products for treatment of patients deficient in essential fatty acids (EFA).
There is obviously an urgent need for attention towards international harmonizing of regulation for control of identity, quality and strength of marketed medicinal plant products. There is also a clear demand for attention to be given to establish clear and reasonable criteria for evaluation of health and medicinal claims. Real experts, within and without the regulatory establishment ought to be invited to consider both traditional and conventional therapeutic claims along the liens explored by Simon Mills in his seminal presentation too the First World Congress on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants for Human Welfare, held in Maastricht, The Netherlands, July 19-25.
Production of the most meticulously crafted monographs, validation of analytical methodology for assessment of known likely active constituents and markers, establishment of characteristic secondary plant metabolic profiles, requirements for strict adherence to Good Manufacturing Procedures (GM) and setting of allowed levels for contaminants will not ensure proper identity, quality and strength of botanicals--unless effective systems for certification of raw material by qualified independent botanists or botanical institutes, and registration of testing laboratories are implemented, along with programs for regular examination of facilities and analytical surveys of both commercial raw materials and finished products. Only then will the radiant promise of herbal medicine approach realization and register its potential for contribution to health care both medicinally and economically.
Panel Discussion - Questions and Answers
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Is there a future for the medicinal and aromatic plants industry on the Prairies?
Participants: George Murray Panax Farm, Brandon, MB
Ernest Eder La Boheme Restaurant, Edmonton, AB
Sam Ibrahim Nutrition Plus Pharmacy, Edmonton, AB
Len Donais Northern Essentials Inc., Prince Albert, SK
Jim Thacker Prairie Aromatic Natural Oils Ltd., Bow Island, AB
Rick Chaba Yu-CCAN Corp., Sherwood Park, AB
Tim Heavenor Agricultural Financial Services Corp., Camrose, AB
Moderator: M. Mirza
Question: Due to the isolation and distance of the Peace River region, we lose many of our educated students. Growers in the region lack the ability to communicate with each other, as well as some of the potential sources of information. Is it possible to get an ASFC office in Grande Prairie?
Tim Heavenor: Farm Credit Corporation has an office in Grande Prairie, which is one of six offices located in northern Alberta. ASFC has representation in Fairview, Spirit River, Grimshaw, Grande Prairie, Fort Vermilion and Fahler. I agree that there are many opportunities available in the Peace region. I believe that the Peace River Organic Producers Association has almost 50,000 acres under organic cultivation.
Question: What sources of funding are available?
Tim Heavenor: We are interested in looking at viable ideas that have potential for success in Alberta.
Duane Watrin (Western Economic Diversification): There are two funds, the Health Fund and the Biotechnology Fund, which can be accessed by Western Canadians. The funds are a source of risk capital for clients who cannot access financial resources through traditional means. WED provides market and technical research expertise, as well as assisting with business plan development as part of this process.
Question: Is funding for research and development available?
Duane Watrin (Western Economic Diversification): WED does not provide funding for basic research. I believe that the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) would be prepared to evaluate funding proposals of this type.
Question: How did you put together the small distillation unit you described?
Ernest Eder: We used a 300 litre coffee urn, and two big cooking kettles (1.5m diameter) to put together our system. We had a difficult time with the seals in the system, but we ended up with a small, efficient steam distillation system which was built for less than $10,000.
Len Donais: Our distillation unit is 300 inches in diameter and approximately five feet high. It has a hinged dome for loading material into the chamber. It is made of food grade stainless steel. You should note that you need a permit from Excise Canada to set up this type of unit.
Question: What parts of the mint plant do you distill?
Ernest Eder: We only distill the stem; we do not use the roots.
Question: What is the difference between water and steam distillation?
Len Donais: We looked at several extraction methods. Some essential oils must be extracted with hot water. Other possibilities are steam and carbon dioxide extraction. Industry is most familiar with steam-extracted products; therefore, this is the preferred way to do things, since they are the buyers. Microwave assisted processing is a new method of extraction, but the industry doesn't like this kind of change since they like a consistent product. We want quick cashflow, so we try to meet the industry preference.
Jim Thacker: Industry will tell you what they want, then you supply the material. Established, long-time flavour houses use steam-distilled material.
Question: Do you have to test your essential oils for content?
Jim Thacker: We do some gas chromatography at our farm. Both the buyer and the retailer also do separate analyses. It is a high-tech procedure to check for residues, etc. Canadian essential oils are sought after in the industry; we have come to realize that western Canadian essential oils are state-of-the-art.
Question: Is the five acres of herb production that you described organic? How much time is involved in maintaining this plot?
Ernest Eder: Yes, we do produce our herbs under organic management. We use a large amount of labour in our herb plots. I would make a rough estimate of 3-4 hrs/day. We sometimes rotate the staff from our restaurant to take care of the herb gardens.
Question: What soil conditions favour echinacea production?
Len Donais: A higher pH (7.0-7.5) appears to be better. Echinacea angustifolia in S. Saskatchewan and Manitoba grows wild on southern slopes of hills. I grow my plots along the river in a well-protected field with lots of snow cover. Many things are still not understood. It is not clear how to get a three-year crop out of the ground. I started with a shovel, and went down 4 feet to get the tap root. Digging E. Pallida at 16 inches will lose much of the lower root material. I have noticed that E. Angustifolia needs to be much drier than the higher moisture requirements of E. Purpurea.
Question: Can we use raised beds for echinacea?
Len Donais: No one has tried it as far as I know, but it might be a good idea.
Question: What is the bottom line...how much money can be made in these crops?
Len Donais: What it costs is difficult to calculate. Seed is being sold for $1500/pound. I plant five acres with 1/4 pound of seed. I sold E. Purpurea for $60/pound. The big thing is the labour-intensive nature of the process. Production requires a great deal of hoe, hoe, hoe (mimicking the sound of laughter). In addition, my customers want organically-produced material. We also must not be naive about competition in what could be a lucrative market.
Al Oliver (BC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food): It took us almost two years to put together the economics fact sheet on Echinacea production. It takes a great deal of work and the willingness of growers to cooperate in the effort.
Question: What type of new products are you involved with?
Sam Ibrahim: We are bringing out a line of 24 products which will be sold across Canada. Eventually we would like to source our material from Canadian producers.
Question: How do we network? This conference has been tremendous, but what is the next step?
Len Donais: The people who attend this conference should put their names in the conference proceedings. I would like to know who has money to invest in this sort of enterprise. I congratulate the organizing committee for this initial effort. I suggest that the conference rotate to various regions of prairie production. We are in a world market. We are not competing with our own community, but with the world. We need a high-quality, efficient production system to gain a competitive advantage.
Al Oliver (BC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food): I would also like to take this opportunity to thank the Organizing Committee of the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference for a well-organized, interesting meeting. I think it is important to note that George Murray had a number of heart attacks, and yet is still here participating on the panel.
George Murray: I had three heart attacks in nine months. Family and friends helped through every stage of my illness. I found out that my treatment during this time cost approximately $35,000-$40,000. It made me think that using preventative herbal remedies is not only a way to maintain our bodies, but also overcome many of the budgetary problems we now face in our society.
Closing Comments
Dr. Ronald J. Howard, Leader New Crop Development Unit, Crop Diversification Centre South Brooks, Alberta
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
I would like to begin by thanking you, the audience, for your part in making this, the first Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference, an overwhelming success. Over 300 of you registered, which was beyond our expectations. I am also grateful to the speakers who took time from their busy schedules to come and talk to us. I am amazed at the breadth of topics presented over the past two days and personally feel that I have learned a great deal. I hope that you feel the same way.
I would also like to thank the sponsors and exhibitors for their generosity towards the conference and Olds College for the excellent facilities and assistance they have provided. Finally, I would like to extend appreciation to the media representatives who helped us to advertise the meeting and to the reporters who were here to cover the event. We look forward to reading and hearing your reports in the days to come.
I mentioned in my opening remarks that the conference had three objectives:
- to provide a forum for information exchange,
- to bring people interested in medicinal and aromatic plants together to meet one another, and
- to help those of us in government circles assess the size and diversity of this industry so that we can better help it to reach its fullest potential.
Each of us will go away from this meeting thinking of how we can apply the knowledge we've acquired in our respective situations. I heard several speakers say that there is a strong public interest in the use of traditional medicines, aromatic oils and nutriceuticals derived from plants. Although North America has lagged behind the rest of the world in embracing the use of these products, it appears as though this situation is rapidly changing. A significant "window of opportunity" currently exists for those with expertise in the production, processing, marketing and utilization of phytochemicals.
Here on the Prairies, we have the potential to develop a world class phytochemical industry. Companies such a Bioriginal Foods, Fytochem and Yu-ccan have told us that there is a place in domestic and international markets for entrepreneurs who are willing to work hard and take some risks. There is a yet undiscovered potential in many of our native plants and, if we are successful in developing some of these on a commercial scale, we will diversify our agricultural industry and create employment opportunities for Canadians, including our aboriginal peoples.
We also heard that the medicinal and aromatic plants industry is complex and diverse, and that we must work together if it is to grow and prosper. I believe that this conference represents a significant step in that direction. I mentioned yesterday that PMAP '96 was organized under the auspices of the Prairie Crop Diversification Working Group, a consortium of representatives from Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food, Manitoba Agriculture, and the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration.
On the strength of the interest at this conference, representatives from Manitoba have offered to host a meeting similar to this one in Brandon next year. So until then, let me close by wishing all of you a productive and prosperous year and I hope to see most of you again at the next Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference. Thanks again for coming and have a safe trip home.
Recipes
Presented at the Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference - Olds, Alberta - March 3-5, 1996
Tomato-Herb Vinaigrette
Chef Tim Wood
Quantity | Ingredients |
10 ml | Extra-virgin olive oil |
10 ml | Shallots, minced |
1 clove | Garlic, minced |
30 ml | Tomato puree |
500 ml | Tomatoes, peeled, seeded, and chopped |
| Fresh ground black pepper to taste |
30 ml | Fresh herbs--basil, dill, thyme, parsley,
chives, cilantro, etc. (chef's choice) |
15 ml | Balsamic vinegar (or more to taste) |
Method:
- Heat the olive oil in a skillet over medium heat. Add the shallots and garlic. Saut‚, stirring frequently, until they are tender and translucent, about 3-4 minutes.
- Add the tomato puree and saut‚ for another 3-4 minutes, stirring constantly.
- Add the chopped tomatoes and continue to cook over medium heat for about 10 minutes, or until the mixture is thickened and reduced.
- Remove the tomato mixture from the heat, let cool slightly, and pure‚ it in a blender until very smooth. Add the pepper, herbs, and vinegar and puree until evenly blended.
- If the vinaigrette is too thick, add a little water. The vinaigrette should pour easily from a spoon. Taste the vinaigrette and add more vinegar to taste if necessary.
- Refrigerate the vinaigrette until you are ready to use.
Basil Butter
Chef Tim Wood
Quantity | Ingredients |
56.7 g | Basil, fresh, chopped |
56.7 g | Shallots, chopped |
10 ml | Lemon juice |
453.6 g | Unsalted butter, softened |
5 ml | Salt |
5 ml | Black pepper, ground, to taste |
Method:
1. Combine all ingredients in a blender, food processor or mixer.
2. Roll the butter into a cylinder using parchment paper or plastic wrap.
Marinated Vegetable Salad
| Broccoli spears | Diced cucumbers | Chopped green onions |
| Cauliflower florets | Sliced fresh carrots | Chopped fresh dill |
| Diced greenpeppers | Chopped fresh basil | Cherry tomatoes |
| Chopped fresh thyme | Kraft Golden Italian Dressing | |
Method:
1. According to how many people you are feeding, chop the appropriate amount of vegetables.
2. Toss with enough dressing just to coat vegetables, add chopped herbs and refrigerate for 2 - 3 hours.
* Creamy dressing such as Wishbone House dressing may be used instead of Italian.
Mesculin Salad with Warm Mushroom Dressing
Chef Tim Wood
Quantity | Ingredients | Preparation |
60 g | Mixed Fresh Herbs | Remove Leaves From Stem |
60 g | Mixed Baby Greens | |
10 g | Oyster Mushrooms | Tear into Strips |
10 g | Shiitake Mushrooms | Cut into Strips |
60 ml | Oil, Extra-Virgin Olive | |
15 ml | Fresh Lemon Juice | |
15 ml | Fresh, Tarragon Vinegar | |
2 tsp | Salt | |
2 tsp | Pepper, Fresh Black | |
Method:
1. Clean fresh herbs and discard any bruised or brown leaves.
2. Pick over baby greens and discard any bruised or damaged leaves.
3. Saut‚ mushrooms with a little olive oil, salt and pepper.
4. Let mushrooms cool to room temperature.
5. Combine olive oil, lemon juice, vinegar, salt and pepper in food processor and process until blended.
6. Drizzle over salad.
Tabouli (Bulgur Wheat) Salad
Chef Tim Wood
Quantity | Ingredients |
283.5 g | Bulgur |
226.8 g | Onions, brunoise |
56.7 g | Sliced green onions |
170.1 g | Chopped parsley |
56.7 g | Fresh mint, chopped |
226.8 g | Olive oil |
226.8 g | Lemon juice |
453.6 g | Tomato concasse |
5 ml | Salt, to taste |
5 ml | Black ground pepper, to taste |
113.4 g | Toasted pine nuts |
Method:
1. Place the bulgar in a bowl and cover with cold water. Soak the bulgar until tender, approximately 2 hours.
2. Drain the bulgar and squeeze out all of the excess water.
3. Add the onions, green onions, parsely, mint, olive oil and lemon juice. Mix well.
4. Add the tomatoes; mix to combine. Season with salt and pepper.
5. Garnish with the toasted pine nuts.
Ricotta and Basil Lasagna
Quantity | Ingredients |
8 | Lasagna noodles |
2 cloves | Crushed garlic |
1/4 cup | Butter or margarine |
3 tbsp | All purpose flour |
Pinch | Nutmeg |
2 cups | Milk (not skim milk) |
2 tbsp | Finely chopped fresh basil |
2 cups | Ricotta cheese |
1 cup | Grated parmesan cheese |
| Salt and white pepper |
8 ounces | Sliced mozzarella cheese |
2 tbsp. | Chopped fresh basil |
Method:
- Cook lasagna noodles according to package directions; drain. In a saucepan, cook garlic in butter or margarine until tender. Stir in flour and nutmeg. Add milk. Cook and stir until thickened and bubbly, cook and stir for approximately 1 minute more.
- Remove sauce from heat. Stir in 2 tbsp. finely chopped basil. Add ricotta cheese and half of the Parmesan cheese, stirring until well combined. Season to taste with salt and white pepper.
- Layer half of the cooked noodles on a 12" x 7 1/2" baking dish. Spread with half of the ricotta mixture and top with half of the mozzarella cheese. Sprinkle 1 tbsp of the chopped basil. Repeat layers. Sprinkle the remaining Parmesan cheese on top.
- Bake in a 375 F oven for 30 - 35 minutes or until heated through. Let it stand for 10 minutes.
Preparation time: 15 minutes. Serves 6-8 people.
Apple Ginger Drink
Quantity | Ingredients |
1 litre | Apple juice |
3/4 inch piece | Fresh ginger root, finely grated |
Method:
1. Place grated ginger root in apple juice and let it sit overnight.
Minted Iced Tea
Quantity | Ingredients |
1 litre | Iced tea, frozen or cystals |
1 tbsp. | Chopped fresh mint |
| Lemon slices |
Method:
1. Mix iced tea.
2. Add the mint and lemon slices. Let it sit overnight.
Pink Lemonade and Thyme
Quantity | Ingredients |
1 litre | Pink lemonade, frozen or cystals |
1 tsp. | Chopped fresh thyme |
Method:
1. Add thyme to lemonade and let it sit overnight.
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